THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  ILLINOIS 

LIBRARY 

630.7 
II6b 


cop-  cl 


A6RI6ULIUBAL 
UIBARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


HOW  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE 
MORE  FOOD 


BY  CYRIL  G.  HOPKINS 


RESULTS  OF  LIMESTONE  (A)  AND 

PHOSPHORUS  (*)  IN  GROWING  SWEET  CLOVER 

(Samples  from  field  trials  at  Sageika) 


URBANA,   ILLINOIS,  JULY,    1922 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTE 

The  University  of  Illinois  reprints  the  following  document  as  the 
last  work  performed  by  Dr.  Hopkins  when  on  leave  of  absence  from 
the  University  which  he  served  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  It  is 
printed  exactly  as  it  was  prepared  by  him,  as  it  was  felt  that  his  many 
friends  would  be  interested  not  only  in  the  subject  matter,  but  in 
his  method  of  presentation  to  the  people  of  Greece. 

From  the  standpoint  of  science  it  is  believed  that  special  interest 
attaches  to  this  material  from  the  fact  that  it  is  probably  the  most 
extensive  study  that  has  ever  been  made  by  a  competent  man  working 
on  soils  that  have  been  farmed  so  many  years  as  have  those  of  Greece. 
From  the  standpoint  of  permanent  agriculture,  also,  the  study  is  im- 
portant from  the  fact  that  the  same  methods  were  used  which  had 
characterized  Dr.  Hopkins'  soil  experiments  in  Illinois,  and  with 
apparently  the  same  results. 

The  translation  of  this  work  into  Greek  was  the  work  of  Dr. 
Bouyoucos,  a  native  of  Greece,  a  student  of  Dr.  Hopkins,  his  con- 
stant companion  in  Greece,  and  prominently  mentioned  in  the  text. 
Dr.  Bouyoucos  is  now  professor  in  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 

E.  DAVENPORT 
Dean  and  Director 


FOREWORD 

A  wise  Christian  statesman  once  said  that  a  nation  should  keep 
its  promises  and  preserve  its  honor,  even  tho  it  perish  in  the  effort. 
He  was  a  practical  statesman  as  well  as  an  idealist;  for  it  was  he 
who  first  suggested  that  the  American  Red  Cross  Commission  to 
Greece  should  undertake,  along  with  its  program  of  emergency  relief, 
an  agricultural  program,  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  food  production 
of  the  country  and  thus  permanently  benefiting  the  entire  population. 

An  Agricultural  Department  was  accordingly  made  a  part  of  the 
Commission,  and  an  American  scientist  who  had  won  world-wide  dis- 
tinction for  his  practical  success  in  applying  to  the  problem  of  food 
production  the  results  of  his  investigation  of  the  soil,  was  secured  as 
head  of  this  Department.  Major  Hopkins  has  traveled  extensively  in 
Greece,  has  had  analyses  made  of  the  soils  of  various  regions,  and  has 
conducted  experiments  whose  purpose  is  to  enable  the  farmer  to  pro- 
duce larger  crops  as  the  reward  of  his  labors. 

This  report  of  the  Department  presents  the  simple  truth  regarding 
the  conditions  which  now  exist  in  Greece,  and  recommends  some 
practical  scientific  methods  for  greatly  improving  these  conditions.  It 
is  designed  to  serve  Greece  and  her  people,  and  this  result  will  be 
attained  if  the  recommendations  are  put  into  practice. 

This  booklet  is  presented  not  only  to  farmers  and  landowners, 
but  also  to  merchants,  bankers,  teachers,  and  statesmen ;  for  it  is  only 
by  the  intelligent  efforts  and  influence  of  all  that  food  production  can 
be  largely  and  permanently  increased. 

EDWARD  CAPPS 

Lieutenant  Colonel,  American  Red  Cross 
Commission  to  Greece 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

To  Colonel  Edward  Capps,  Chief  of  the  American  Red  Cross  Com- 
mission to  Greece,  I  am  very  grateful  for  the  honor  and  privilege  of  serving 
as  Head  of  the  Agricultural  Section  to  conduct  investigations  to  help  Greece 
to  produce  more  food;  also  for  his  constant  encouragement  and  support. 

The  Government  of  Greece,  including  both  civil  and  military  authori- 
ties and  also  the  railroad  and  municipal  officials,  and  the  many  good  citizens 
with  whom  I  came  in  contact  were  kind  and  generously  helpful.  The  con- 
tinuous passes  on  the  railroads,  granted  by  request  of  the  Government, 
increased  our  efficiency;  and,  at  times  when  we  were  compelled  to  change 
our  schedule  of  travel,  these  ready  passes  helped  us  to  avoid  some  personal 
hardships.  This  special  mark  of  interest  and  confidence  in  us  on  the  part 
of  the  Government  will  be  remembered  with  very  personal  appreciation. 

The  Minister  of  Agriculture  secured  upon  my  request  the  addresses 
of  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  farmers  and  landowners,  and  by  his  cour- 
tesy this  booklet  is  sent  to  them  free  of  postage.  He  has  also  generously 
permitted  his  chemical  laboratories  to  do  much  work  in  connection  with  our 
agricultural  investigations. 

Dr.  Photios  G.  Paliatseas,  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Chemical 
Laboratory,  did  much  personal  work  in  connection  with  the  daily  care  of 
the  pot-culture  experiments,  also  in  directing  and  in  part  performing  the 
chemical  analyses  of  soils  and  crops ;  and  he  has  done  it  all  with  a  generous 
spirit  of  interested  and  intelligent  cooperation.  I  am  grateful  to  him  and 
to  his  assistants,  among  whom  my  special  thanks  and  appreciation  are 
gladly  extended  to  Mr.  Perikles  Ant.  Callergis,  Associate  Chemist,  who 
performed  most  of  the  analytical  work,  not  only  with  a  high  degree  of 
skill  and  accuracy,  but  with  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  purposes  of  the 
investigations. 

Captain  George  J.  Bouyoucos,  son  of  a  Greek  and  a  lover  of  his  native 
land,  American  by  fifteen  years  of  residence  and  education,  a  graduate  of 
the  University  of  Illinois,  a  doctor  of  philosophy  of  Cornell  University, 
and  a  graduate  student  of  European  universities,  has  been  for  several  years 
a  soil  investigator  for  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College.  While  the 
Great  War  was  still  in  full  progress,  I  asked  Dr.  Bouyoucos  if  he  would 
come  with  me  to  try  to  help  Greece  produce  more  food.  He  replied  at 
once  that  he  would  start  any  time  I  wished ;  and  a  few  days  later  we  were 
crossing  the  war  zone  on  our  way  to  Greece.  He  has  been  to  me  a  constant 
and  agreeable  comrade  and  a  most  industrious,  intelligent,  and  sympathetic 
assistant,  interpreter,  and  translator;  he  has  always  been  willing  to  bear 
his  share  of  the  hardships ;  and  he  has  done  it  all  cheerfully.  May  Greece 
and  America  appreciate  the  service  of  this  Greek- American. 

CYRIL  G.  HOPKINS 


HOW  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 

BY  CYRIL  G.  HOPKINS,  PH.D.,  MAJOR  AND  DEPUTY  COMMISSIONER, 
AMERICAN  RED  CROSS  COMMISSION  TO  GREECE* 

The  average  production  of  the  staple  food-grains  of  Greece  can  easily 
be  doubled  with  much  profit  to  the  farmers,  with  much  benefit  to  the 
entire  nation,  and  without  the  use  of  more  land  than  is  now  used  for  grain 
production.  To  bring  this  about  will  require  three  things : 

1.  That  the  farmers  be  convinced  that  the  above  statement  is  true. 

2.  That  they  be  informed  as  to  the  practical  methods  to  be  used. 

3.  That  the  Greek  nation  make  it  possible  for  the  farmers  to  secure 
what  they  need  to  use  for  the  purpose. 

This  booklet  is  issued  to  influence  both  public  opinion  and  farm  prac- 
tice, and  no  apology  is  made  for  printing  it  in  the  plain  and  simple  language 
which  is  understood  by  all  Greeks  and  spoken  by  most  of  them,  tho  written 
by  few.  The  best  and  highest  service  of  language  is  not  to  adorn  the 
speaker  or  writer  but  to  convey  thought  and  knowledge  and  understanding 
to  the  hearer  or  reader;  and,  when  plain  Greek  is  used  to  the  best  advan- 
tage by  the  best  writers,  it  may  rival  the  simple,  forceful  Anglo-Saxon  of 
the  English-speaking  people.  As  St.  Paul  wrote  to  the  Corinthians :  "I  had 
rather  speak  five  words  with  my  understanding,  that  by  my  voice  I  might 
teach  others  also,  than  ten  thousand  words  in  an  unknown  tongue" 
(7  Corinthians  14:19). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  farmer  must  .be  asked  to  learn  a  few  plain 
scientific  words  which  must  be  used  to  enable  both  him  and  the  average 
statesman  to  understand  the  real  basis  upon  which  increased  food  produc- 
tion is  possible.  Thus,  nitrogen,  for  example,  is  one  of  the  substances 
required  for  the  growth  of  every  plant.  There  is  no  simpler  word  for 
this  substance,  and  it  must  be  assumed  that  the  interested  reader,  whether 
a  food-producer  or  only  a  food-consumer,  will  us£  his  intellect  to  learn 
a  few  such  words,  if  they  are  not  already  known  to  him.2 

THE  BASIS  OF  PROSPERITY 

Every  citizen  of  Greece  should  recognize  that  the  primary  basis  of 
general  prosperity  is  the  soil,  from  which  are  produced,  directly  or  in- 
directly, the  principal  supplies  of  food,  clothing,  and  fuel  required  by  most 


Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Illinois;  Chief  in  Agronomy  and  Chem- 
istry and  Vice-Director,  University  of  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Dr. 
Hopkins  died  at  Gibraltar  on  October  6,  1919,  while  on  his  way  home  from  Greece. 

2The  above  two  paragraphs  were  not  included  in  the  Greek  publication  but  are 
retained  here  as  they  stood  in  the  original  manuscript. 


434 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


of  the  people.  The  study  of  the  soil,  of  soil  fertility,  and  of  the  microscopic 
life  within  the  soil ;  and  the  study  of  plants,  of  plant  nutrition,  and  of 
plant  growth,  as  related  to  modern  agriculture,  may  afford  as  much  mental 
development,  possess  as  much  cultural  value,  and  furnish  knowledge  of  far 
greater  usefulness,  than  the  study  of  ancient  or  foreign  languages.  Cer- 
tainly many  should  study  the  sci- 
ences and  principles  upon  which 
modern  improved  agriculture  must 
be  based. 

Among  the  city  people  it  is  rather 
common  talk  that  the  soils  of 
Greece  are  exceedingly  fertile,  but 
among  the  farmers  it  is  common 
knowledge  that  the  average  soil 
used  for  wheat  and  other  grains  is 
of  low  productive  power.  A  thoro 
investigation  reveals  the  fact  that 
the  farmers'  knowledge  is  correct 
and  that  the  contrary  opinion  is 
wrong;  but  these  opposite  beliefs 
tend  to  balance  or  neutralize  each 
other,  as  tho  one  horse  were  hitched 
before  and  the  other  behind  the 
plow,  pulling  in  opposite  direc- 


Fig.  1. — Results  brought  about  by  treat- 
ing worn-out  soils  in  Macedonia  (Near 
old  Pella) 


tions ;  whereas,  the  banker,  for  example,  should  intelligently  encourage  the 
farmer  to  make  his  soil  more  fertile. 


BETTER  SYSTEMS  FOR  GREATER  GREECE 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  in  Old  Greece  is  60  okas  per  stremma,  or 
about  75  kilograms  per  stremma,  four  okas  being  equal  to  about  five  kilo- 
grams.1 Since  Greece  has  already  adopted  the  world  system  of  metric 
measures  for  distances  (meters,  kilometers,  etc.),  for  surfaces  (10  stremma 
make  1  hectar),  and  for  weights  as  related  to  drugs  and  all  exports  and 
imports,  it  seems  so  nearly  certain  that  in  her  new  expansion  the  nation 
will  make  full  use  of  the  metric  system  that  the  statistical  facts  published 
in  this  booklet  relating  to  soil  fertility  and  crop  production  are  given  in  kilo- 
grams, not  in  okas.  The  difference  between  these  two  weights  is  small  in 
comparison  with  the  difference  in  prices  from  time  to  time.  It  is  not  much 
to  learn  that  15  kilograms  of  seed  sown  per  stremma  is  the  same  as  12  okas, 
or  that  the  price  of  1  drachma  per  kilogram  is  the  same  as  1.25  drachmai 
per  oka. 

When  75  kilograms  of  wheat  are  harvested  from  15  kilograms  of  seed 
per  stremma,  the  return  is  five  of  crop  from  one  of  seed  sown.  This  is 


xThis  is  the  equivalent  of  approximately  11.2  bushels  per  acre.     A  stremma  is 
equal  to  .247  acre.     A  kilogram  is  equal  to  2.2046  Ibs. — Editor's  note. 


19gg] 


How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


435 


the  general  average  for  Old  Greece,  the  average  from  more  than  three 
million  stremmas  of  wheat  seeded  and  harvested  yearly.  But  in  every 
neighborhood,  and  on  almost  every  farm,  there  are  some  spots  of  ground 
where  the  crop  is  two  or  three  times  as  good  as  the  average.  No  fact  is 
better  known  to  farmers  than  that  soils  differ  in  productive  power,  even  in 
the  same  season  and  with  the  same  kind  of  plowing  and  the  same  kind  of 
seed.  On  a  farm  in  Thessaly,  I  harvested  the  crop  from  a  small  area 
where  the  growth  was  very  good,  and  also  the  crop  from  another  area  of 
the  same  size  where  the  yield  was  poor.  In  the  one  place  the  crop  yield 
was  eight  times  as  much  as  in  the  other,  and  yet  the  seed  and  plowing 
and  the  rainfall  and  sunshine  were  alike  for  both  places. 

The  accompanying  picture  shows  a  spot  in  Macedonia  on  which  the 
yield  was  very  good,  while  the  average  of  the  field  was  very  poor,  as  can 
be  seen  in  the  same  picture.  The  crops  harvested  from  equal  areas  are 
shown  in  the  second  picture.  On  the  average  land  the  plants  are  few  and 
short,  while,  on  the  small  area  of  enriched  soil,  the  plants  in  an  equal  area 
are  many  and  tall. 

GOD'S  COMMANDMENT  DISOBEYED 

The  great  agricultural  problem  of  Greece  is  to  enrich  the  soil.  This  is 
a  duty  which  has  long  been  neglected,  and  even  against  the  commandment 
of  God,  for  in  the  first  chapter  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  we  read:  "And  God 
said  unto  them,  Be  fruitful  and  multi- 
ply, and  replenish  the  earth  and  subdue 
it"  (Genesis  1:28). 

The  first  part  of  this  commandment 
has  been  obeyed,  for  the  people  have 
multiplied,  but  the  second  part  has  been 
disobeyed,  for  they  have  taken  from  the 
soil  and  have  not  replenished  it.  In- 
stead of  subduing  the  earth  and  having 
dominion  over  it  and  making  it  pro- 
duce larger  crops,  the  people  of  Greece 
have  abandoned  vast  areas  of  land  once 
cultivated. 

The  replenishment  or  enrichment  of 
the  soil  is  by  far  the  most  neglected 
factor  in  the  agricultural  practice  of 
the  country.  In  general,  the  Greek 


Fig.  2. — Yields  from  areas  of  the 
same  extent  of  rich  and  poor  soil 
(Near  old  Pella) 


farmer,  with  his  common  plow  and  hoe,  does  a  good  job  in  the  plowing 
and  preparation  of  his  fields.  Expensive  modern  implements  would  save 
human  labor,  but  they  would  not  make  the  soil  produce  much  larger  crops, 
and  of  course  their  use  is  impossible  on  much  of  the  land  now  used  for 
food  grains. 


436  BULLETIN  No.  239  [July, 

In  general,  the  farmers  use  good  seed  and  do  a  good  job  of  seeding,  and 
they  secure  a  good  stand  of  plants.  Of  course,  some  improvement  in  seed 
is  often  possible  and  most  farmers  are  eager  to  secure  the  best  seed ;  but  to 
change  the  seed  or  methods  of  seeding  would  not  greatly  increase  the  food 
supply  of  Greece. 

No  permanent  change  in  climatic  conditions  has  ever  occurred  anywhere 
on  the  earth  in  all  human  history.  The  people  talk  much  of  drouth  and 
of  bad  weather,  but  the  talk  is  useless,  for  talk  does  not  change  these 
conditions. 

THE  NEGLECTED  FERTILITY 

There  is  one  and  only  one  means  by  which  a  large  increase  can  be 
secured  in  the  yield  of  crops  on  the  average  land  now  used  for  growing 
grain,  and  that  means  is  by  the  enrichment  of  the  soil.  Man  is  not  re- 
sponsible for  the  weather,  but  he  is  responsible  for  the  fertility  of  his  soil. 
He  can  obey  the  commandment  to  replenish  the  earth.  He  takes  care  that 
his  animals  have  food,  and  he  should  take  care  also  that  his  crops  have  the 
food  they  need. 

By  intelligent,  profitable  soil  enrichment  the  average  crop  can  be  more 
than  doubled  without  change  of  seed  or  season,  and  without  change  of 
implements  or  methods  of  tillage ;  and  this  result  will  be  achieved  if  a  fair 
share  of  the  nation's  intelligence  and  energy  is  devoted  to  the  effort. 

Let  us  study  the  following  basic  facts  relating  to  this  problem  which  is 
of  such  vital  importance  to  every  citizen,  and  then  let  every  citizen  be 
ready  to  act  or  to  exert  influence  to  make  more  food  in  Greece. 

SIMPLE  FARM  SCIENCE 

Bread  is  made  of  wheat,  but  what  is  wheat  made  of?  Everyone  knows 
that  animals  must  have  food,  but  the  fact  is  that  plants  must  also  have 
food  if  they  are  to  grow  and  yield  a  harvest.  The  necessary  food  of  plants 
consists  of  ten  simple  primary  substances,  known  in  chemistry  as  elements. 
Of  these  ten  elements,  five  are  supplied  always  in  abundance  by  nature, 
by  God.  But  "we  are  laborers  together  with  God,"  and  the  other  five 
are  left  for  man  to  study,  and  to  supply  if  necessary. 

The  five  elements  always  naturally  well  provided  are  carbon  and  oxygen 
(secured  by  the  plant  leaves  from  the  air  in  the  compound  called  carbon 
dioxid),  hydrogen  (secured  from  water  absorbed  by  the  roots),  and  iron  and 
sulfur,  both  of  which  are  taken  from  the  soil  and  are  naturally  and  perma- 
nently provided  in  sufficient  abundance  to  meet  the  needs  of  large  crops. 

The  five  elements  left  for  man's  consideration  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
calcium,  potassium,  and  magnesium.  These  are  secured  from  the  soil  by 
all  plants,  altho  under  certain  conditions,  nitrogen  may  also  be  secured 
from  the  air  by  one  class  of  plant,  known  as  legumes,  including  such  as 
the  clovers,  lupines,  vetches,  peas,  and  beans. 


1922]  How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD  437 

These  ten  elements  are  required  to  make  plants  grow,  just  as  certainly 
as  food  is  required  to  make  animals  grow. 

FERTILITY  MAKES  WHEAT 

Thus,  in  the  famous  experiment  station  of  Rothamsted,  England,  in  field 
trials  running  sixty  years,  the  general  average  yield  of  wheat  without  soil 
enrichment  was  85  kilograms  per  stremma,  but  249  kilograms  per  stremma 
where  the  five  elements  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  calcium,  potassium,  and 
magnesium,  were  applied.  During  the  last  ten  years,  the  average  yields 
were  68  kilograms  on  the  common  land  and  251  kilograms  where  the  soil 
was  enriched. 

Likewise,  after  similar  trials  with  barley  had  been  in  progress  at  the 
Rothamsted  station  for  half  a  century,  the  average  yield  for  a  ten-year 
period  was  more  than  four  times  as  great  where  the  soil  was  enriched  as 
where  it  was  not. 

On  my  own  farm  in  America  the  yield  of  wheat  in  1917  was  296 
kilograms  per  stremma  as  the  average  from  68  stremmas  where  the  soil 
was  made  rich,  and  only  52  kilograms  per  stremma  as  the  average  from 
six  stremmas  of  land  not  enriched.  Thus,  when  the  soil  was  enriched  the 
crop  harvested  was  twenty  times  the  seed  sown,  while  without  soil  enrich- 
ment the  harvest  was  about  four  times  the  seed. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  for  the  entire  Kingdom  of  Denmark  for 
a  ten-year  period  is  273  kilograms  per  stremma,  compared  with  about  75 
kilograms  for  Old  Greece.  But  in  Denmark  soil  enrichment  is  intelligently 
encouraged  and  practiced. 

These  results  from  long  trials,  from  farm  experience  and  from  a 
nation's  practice,  are  cited  to  prove  the  importance  of  soil  enrichment. 
Many  other  similar  results  could  be  cited  if  necessary. 

SOILS  DIFFER 

Not  all  soils  are  deficient  in  all  of  the  five  elements  mentioned.  Some 
soils  are  poor  in  only  one  element  and  rich  in  all  others;  but  a  chain  is 
no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link,  and  if  the  soil  is  poor  in  nitrogen,  for 
example,  then  the  wheat  crop  will  be  poor,  even  tho  all  the  other  necessary 
elements  are  present  in  abundant  supply.  Many  soils  are  poor  in  two 
elements,  and  some  are  poor  in  three  elements,  but  rarely  is  a  soil  found 
which  is  poor  in  more  than  three  elements. 

But  one  soil  may  be  poor  in  nitrogen  while  another  may  be  poor  only 
in  phosphorus  or  in  calcium.  Or  one  soil  may  be  poor  in  nitrogen  and 
calcium,  while  another  may  contain  plenty  of  those  elements  but  be  poor 
in  phosphorus  or  potassium  or,  rarely,  even  in  both  phosphorus  and 
potassium. 

In  which  elements  are  the  different  soils  of  Greece  rich  or  poor?  It 
was  to  answer  this  question  that  the  members  of  the  agricultural  section 


438  BULLETIN  No.  239  [July, 

of  the  American  Red  Cross  devoted  almost  a  year  to  the  personal  exam- 
ination of  the  soils  and  crops  in  the  different  important  and  extensive 
agricultural  areas  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  extending  the  investiga- 
tion from  the  regions  about  Sparta  and  Pylos  to  those  about  Lamia, 
Yanina,  Kastoria  and  Drama;  and,  of  course,  to  many  other  important 
agricultural  sections  in  northern,  central,  and  southern  Greece,  and  in  the 
large  island  of  Crete. 

More  than  three  thousand  different  samples  of  soil  were  collected,  and 
these  were  combined  into  about  eighty  composite  samples,  each  representing 
the  trustworthy  average  of  an  important  soil  area. 

THE  SOILS  OF  GREECE 

In  the  accompanying  table  are  given  brief  records  of  the  soil  samples 
collected  and  also  the  amounts  of  the  different  important  elements  of 
fertility  found  in  200,000  kilograms  of  the  soil.  This  is  the  weight  of  one 
stremma  of  soil  to  a  depth  of  about  1 5  centimeters,  so  that  these  tables  give 
the  fertility  in  the  plowed  soil  per  stremma.  This  is  the  stratum  which 
may  be  enriched  by  adding  fertility  and  plowing  it  into  the  soil,  and  the 
yield  of  the  crop  is  governed  largely  by  the  fertility  in  this  plowed  stratum. 
(As  noted  in  the  tables,  a  few  samples  of  subsoil  were  collected  and 
analyzed. ) 

As  collected  each  soil  sample  was  given  a  number.  For  the  convenience 
of  the  reader  of  the  accompanying  table,  these  numbers  are  included  both 
on  the  left-hand  page  in  connection  with  the  record  of  the  samples  and  on 
the  right-hand  page  in  connection  with  the  fertility  content  of  the  soils. 
The  name  of  the  town  or  village  near  which  the  soil  was  collected  is  also 
repeated.  It  will  be  noted  that  these  numbers  and  names  of  places  are 
grouped.  Such  grouping  indicates  that  the  places  are  in  the  same  region. 
Thus  the  grouping  of  Nos.  14,  15,  and  16  indicates  that  the  small  villages 
of  Likochia  and  Imbraim  are  near  Megalopolis. 

The  physical  character  of  the  soil  is  usually  well  known  to  the  farmer. 
However,  to  further  help  him  to  recognize  the  soils  investigated,  these 
characters  are  given  in  the  last  column  on  the  left  pages  of  the  table. 

In  decreasing  order  of  size,  the  physical  particles  of  soils  are  classified 
as  stones,  gravel,  sand,  silt,  and  clay.  Clay  is  a  peculiar  substance.  When 
wet  it  is  gummy  or  sticky,  somewhat  like  dough ;  and  on  drying,  the  mass 
tends  to  contract  and  crack.  The  particles  of  clay  are  extremely  small,  too 
small  to  be  recognized  physically,  except  when  they  are  massed  together. 
The  other  classes  of  particles  are  much  alike,  differing  only  in  size,  the 
silt  being  finer  than  sand,  and  the  gravel  and  stones  being  coarser.  Thus, 
silt  is  not  at  all  like  clay,  but  it  differs  from  fine  sand  only  in  being  still  finer. 

In  addition  to  these  earthy  particles,  soils  usually  contain  more  or  less 
organic  matter  from  partially  decomposed  plant  roots  or  other  vegetation. 
When  moderate  amounts  of  organic  matter  are  present,  the  soil  is  called 


1922]  How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD  439 

a  loam,  while  a  soil  containing  a  large  amount  is  called  muck,  if  much 
decomposed,  or  peat,  if  not  much  decayed. 

Most  soils  are  mixtures  of  several  classes  of  particles,  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  character  or  type  of  soil  only  indicates  which  are  most  promi- 
nent. For  ease  of  tillage  and  of  root  penetration  and  for  the  absorption 
and  retention  of  moisture,  the  silt  loams  and  sandy  loams  are  usually  the 
best  soils ;  but  of  course  the  fertility  content  and  its  liberation  are,  as  a  rule, 
the  most  important  factors  relating  to  soil  improvement,  because  soils  can 
easily  be  enriched  in  fertility  or  be  so  treated  as  to  increase  the  liberation 
for  plant  growth  of  the  fertility  which  they  contain,  while  no  great  changes 
in  the  physical  composition  can  be  made  by  any  practical  means.  Thus  a 
poor  clay  soil  can  be  made  rich  and  productive,  but  it  will  still  be  clay  and 
hard  to  work. 

THE  MEANING  OF  SOIL  ANALYSIS 

In  the  table  are  given  the  total  amounts  of  the  different  plant  food 
elements  contained  in  the  different  soils,  and  these  data  are  worthy  of 
careful  study.  First  of  all,  it  will  be  seen  that  soils  differ  very  greatly  in 
fertility,  as  measured  by  chemical  analysis. 

Thus,  the  nitrogen  in  the  plowed  soil  per  stremma  varies  from  less 
than  150  kilograms  (as  in  Soil  9  from  Sageika)  to  more  than  500  kilograms 
(as  in  Soil  33  from  Armeni,  Crete).1 

The  phosphorus  varies  from  21  kilograms  in  Soil  12  near  Lappa  to 
more  than  200  kilograms  in  several  soils,  and  even  to  more '  than  1 ,000 
kilograms  in  Soil  43  near  Yanina. 

The  potassium,  tho  generally  very  abundant,  varies  from  252  kilograms 
in  Soil  79  (an  abnormal  soil  near  Marathon)  and  714  kilograms  in  Soil  1 
near  Thebes,  to  6,449  kilograms  in  Soil  65  near  Serres. 

The  magnesium  varies  from  176  kilograms  in  Soil  47  near  Keletron- 
Kastoria  (with  only  44  kilograms  in  the  same  weight  of  subsoil)  to  4,615 
kilograms  in  Soil  1 8  near  Thebes ;  and  the  calcium  varies  from  only  290 
kilograms  in  Soil  34  near  Chania,  Crete,  to  12,714  in  Soil  24  near 
Kalabryta. 

LIMESTONE  AND  ACIDITY 

Limestone  always  contains  much  calcium  and  it  usually  contains  some 
magnesium,  while  some  limestones  (dolomites)  contain  both  calcium  and 
magnesium  in  large  amounts.  Usually  the  soil  samples  were  not  analyzed 
for  calcium  or  magnesium  when  they  were  found  to  contain  much  lime- 
stone. (Of  course  some  such  soils  are  much  richer  in  calcium  than  Soil  24.) 


^oil  79  is  not  included  in  this  comparison.     Being  a  muck  soil,  it  is  of  course 
extremely  high  in  nitrogen. — Editor's  note. 


440  BULLETIN  No.  239  [July, 

TABLE  1. — RECORD  OF  SAMPLES  COLLECTED  OF  SOILS  OF  GREECE 

Commonly    each    surface    sample    is    a    composite    of    many    smaller    samples    taken    to 
represent  the   average   of   an   extensive   type   of   soil  in   the  "respective   region   indicated. 


Soil 

No. 

Town 

nearby 

Topography  of  land 

Agricultural 
condition 

Character  of 
soil 

1 

Thebes 

Valley  slope,  nearly 
level 

Grain  fields 

Sandy  clay  loam 

2 
3 

Larissa 
Larissa 

Hill  land,  rolling 
Upland  valley,  nearly 
level 

Grain  fields 
Grain  fields 

Gravelly  loam 
Clay 

4 

5 

Lamia 

Lianokladi 
Junction 

Valley  slope,  nearly 
level 
Hill  land,  sloping 

Grain  fields 
Grain  fields 

Silt  loam 
Gravelly  clay 

6 

7 

Arbanitsa 
Pylos 

Piedmont,  gently 
sloping 
Valley,  nearly  level 

Grain  fields 
Grain  fields 

Clayey  silt 
Limy  clay 

8S  |Gargalianoi    |  Plateau,  nearly  level       | Abandoned  fields  |Subsoil,  clay 


9 
10S 

us 

12 

13S 

Sageika 
Sageika 
Sageika 
Lappa 
Lappa 

Coastal  plain,  undu- 
lating 
Coastal  plain,  undu- 
lating 
Coastal  plain,  undu- 
lating 
Coastal  plain,  nearly 
level 
Coastal  plain,  nearly 
level 

Grain  fields 
Grain  fields 
Timberland 
Waste  land,  brush 
Waste  land,  brush 

Sandy  loam 
Subsoil  of  9,  clay 
Subsoil,  clay 
Clayey,  sandy  loam 

Subsoil  of  12,  sandy 
clay 

14 

15S 
16S 

Likochia 

Megalopolis 
Imbraim 

Mountain  slope,  ter- 
raced 
Ridge  land,  rolling 
Ridge  land,  rolling 

Grain  fields 

Waste  land,  brush 
Waste  land,  weeds 

Stony  clay 

Subsoil,  clay 
Subsoil,  clay 

17 

Larissa 

Upland  valley,  nearly 
level 

Grain  field 

Clay  (pot  cultures) 

18 

Thebes 

Valley  slope,  nearly 
level 

Grain  field 

Sandy  clay  loam 
(pot  cultures) 

19 

20 

Sageika 
Sageika 

Coastal  plain,  undu- 
lating 
Coastal  plain,  nearly 
level 

Grain  field 
Grain  field 

Sandyloam  (pot 
cultures) 
Sandyloam  (field 
experiments) 

21 

22S 
23 

Gargalianoi 
Gargalianoi 
Gargalianoi 

Plateau,  undulating 
Plateau,  undulating 
Plateau,  nearly  level 

Abandoned  fields 
Abandoned  fields 
Abandoned  fields 

Silty  clay 
Subsoil  of  21,  clay 
Silty  clay  (culture 
experiments) 

24 
25 

Kalabryta 
Bysoka 

Mountain  slope,  ter- 
raced 
Valley  delta,  nearly 
level 

Grain  fields 
Grain  fields 

Silty  clay 
Gravelly,  sandy  clay 

26 

27 

28S 

29 
30S 

31S 

Megalopolis 
Megalopolis' 

Megalopolis 

Megalopolis 
Megalopolis 

Mpilali 

Hill'land,  very  sloping 
Ridge  land,  nearly  level 

Ridge  land,  nearly  level 

Ridge  land,  undulating 
Ridge  land,  undulating 

Ridge  land,  rolling 

In  part  abandoned 
Abandoned,  scrub 
trees 
Abandoned,  scrub 
trees 
In  part  abandoned 
Abandoned,  scrub 
trees 
Abandoned,  scrub 
trees 

Clayey  silt 
Silt  loam 

Subsoil  of  27,  clay 

Gravelly  silt  loam 
Subsoil  of  29,  clay 

Subsoil,  clay 

1922] 


How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


441 


TABLE  1. — FERTILITY  IN  SOILS  OF  GREECE 

Kilograms  per  stremma  in  plowed  soil,  about  15  centimeters  in  depth  (200,000  kilo- 
grams of  the  dry  fine  soil).  By  multiplying  by  10,  these  figures  may  easily  be  converted 
into  pounds  per  acre  in  2  million  pounds  of  surface  soil  (0  to  673  inches).  Subsoil 
numbers  are  marked  "S". 


Soil 
No. 

Town  nearby 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phorus 

Potas- 
sium 

Magne- 
sium1 

Cal- 
cium1 

Lime- 
stone 

Acid- 
ity 

1 

Thebes 

310 

76 

714 

11,740 

0 

2 

Larissa 

264 

65 

2,156 

42,140 

0 

3 

Larissa 

179 

74 

3,480 

4,880 

0 

4 

Lamia 

207 

106 

2,579 

7,620 

0 

5 

Lianokladi 

Junction 

187 

73 

1,324 

16,040 

0 

6 

Arbanitsa 

261 

168 

4,530 

4,300 

0 

7 

Pylos 

319 

181 

3,483 

20,580 

0 

8S  j  Gargalianoi 


175 


74     |    2,791   |    1,417 


599 


9 

Sageika 

142 

109 

1,676 

385 

606 

0 

6 

10S 

Sageika 

149 

141 

2,447 

548 

407 

0 

10 

us 

Sageika 

102 

118 

1,836 

675 

997 

0 

34 

12 

Lappa 

146 

21 

1,490 

354 

529 

0 

8 

13S 

Lappa 

118 

53 

1,673 

660 

849 

0 

9 

14 

Likochia 

518 

245 

4,328 

1,856 

2,206 

2,310 

0 

15S 
16S 

Megalopolis 
Imbraim 

178 

175 

125 
117 

3,091 
2,362 

1,029 
821 

786 

572 

0 
0 

77 
14 

17 

Larissa 

265 

105 

3,670 

1,562 

1,951 

220 

0 

18 

Thebes 

304 

122 

1,015 

4,615 

4,265 

8,620 

0 

19 

Sageika 

288 

46 

1,629 

562 

505 

0 

7 

20 

Sageika 

227 

111 

2,227 

505 

607 

0 

10 

21 

22S 
23 

Gargalianoi 
Gargalianoi 
Gargalianoi 

287 
177 
348 

102 
84 
145 

2,088 
2,495 
1,944 

892 
1,543 
680 

1,390 
1,206 
1,480 

0 
0 
0 

17 
603 

7 

24 

Kalabryta 

372 

205 

3,192 

1,534 

12,714 

26,600 

0 

25 

Bysoka 

396 

141 

2,318 

743 

621 

630 

0 

26 

Megalopolis 

436 

145 

4,094 

42,180 

0 

27 

Megalopolis 

341 

38 

1,677 

522 

598 

0 

7 

28S 

Megalopolis 

172 

102 

2,185 

701 

1,171 

0 

97 

29 
30S 

Megalopolis 
Megalopolis 

199 
199 

132 
102 

2,037 
2,758 

616 

809 

1,069 
293 

0 

0 

7 
5 

31S 

Mpilali 

232 

62 

3,882 

2,059 

739 

0 

1,355 

'Soils   which 
magnesium. 


contained   much   limestone   were   not   analyzed   for   calcium  or 


442 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


TABLE  1. — Continued 


Soil 
No. 

nTjaTby       |     Topography,  of  land 

Agricultural 
condition 

Character  of 
soil 

32 
33 
34 
35S 
36 

Armeni, 
Crete 
Armeni, 
Crete 
Chania, 
Crete 
Chania, 
Crete 
Souda,  Crete 

Valley,  nearly  level 

Mountain  slope,  ter- 
raced 
Valley,  gentle  slope 

Valley,  gentle  slope 
Mountain  top,  rolling 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  fields 
Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  fields 

Sandy  silt  loam 
Limy  clay  loam 
Sandy  clay  loam 

Subsoil  of  34,  sandy 
clay 
Clay 

37 

38 
39 

Knosos, 
Crete 
Candia,  Crete 
Phinika, 
Crete 

Mountain  top,  rolling 

Valley,  nearly  level 
Ridge  land,  rolling 

Grain  or  idle 

Grain  or  vines 
Grain 

Limy  loam 

Loam 
Limy  loam 

40 
41 

42 

Korytsa 
Korytsa 

Korytsa 

Low  valley,  nearly  level 
Valley  delta,  very 
sloping 
Hills  or  valley  ridges 

3rain  or  meadow 
Grain  or  fallow 

Grain  or  fallow 

Clayey  silt  loam 
Sandy  clay  loam 

Clayey  silt  loam 

43 
44 
45 
46S 

Yanina 
Soudovitra 
Yanina 
Yanina 

Mountain  top,  rolling 
Valley,  gentle  slope 
Ridge  land,  undulating 
Ridge  land,  undulating 

3rain  or  fallow 
Srain  or  fallow 
Pasture 
Pasture 

Cherty  clay 
Silty  clay  loam 
Silty  loam 
Subsoil  of  45,  clay 

47 
48S 

49 
50S 
51 

Keletron 
Keletron 

Keletron 
Keletron 
Kastoria 

Ridge  land,  undulating 
Ridge  land,  undulating 

Valley  land,  nearly  level 
Valley  land,  nearly  level 
Mountain  slope,  ter- 
raced 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  fallow 

Grain  fields 
Grain  fields 
Grain  and  vines 

Clayey,  sandy  loam 
Subsoil  of  47,  sandy 
clay 
Clay,  very  gummy 
Subsoil  of  49,  clay 
Clay  loam 

52     |Pella 


[Ridge  land,  undulating  [Grain  or  idle |Clay  loam 


53 
54 

55 

Koutsopodi 
Argos 
Argos 

Hill  land,  rolling 
Steep  piedmont  slope 
Valley,  gentle  slope 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  fields 
Grain  fields 

Limy  silt  loam 
Very  stony  clay  loam 
Stony,  sandy  loam 

56 
57 
58 

Tatari 
Magoula 
Pharsala 

Hills  or  ridges,  rolling 
Valley,  nearly  level 
Valley,  nearly  level 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  fallow 
Grain 

Silty  clay  loam 
Clay  loam 
Silty  clay  loam 

59     |Lazarina         [Plain,  nearly  level 


|Cotton 


|Silty  clay  loam 


60 
61 

Kapudji 
Salonica 

Valley,  nearly  level 
Hill  land,  rolling 

Grain  or  forage 
Grain  or  fallow 

Sandy  silt  loam 
Clayey  silt  loam 

62 
63 

64 
65 

Dobitsa 
Dobitsa 

Zichna 
Serres 

Mountain  slope,  ter- 
raced 
Hill  land,  rolling 

Ridge  land,  undulating 
Valley,  gentle  slope 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  fallow 

Grain  or  forage 
Grain  or  forage 

Stony,  silty  clay 

Gravelly,    clayey 
loam 
Clayey  silt  loam 
Sandy  loam 

66 
67 
68S 
69 
70 

Drama 
Dokzat 
Dokzat 
Philippi 
Drama 

Piedmont  slope,  gentle 
Ridge  land,  undulating 
Ridge  land,  undulating 
Plain,  nearly  level 
Plain,  nearly  level 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  fallow 
Abandoned 
Abandoned 

Clay  loam 
Clayey,  sandy  loam 
Subsoil  of  67,  clay 
Sandy  silt  loam 
Clay 

71 

72 

Boutianoi 
Sparta 

Mountain  slope 
Hills  and  ridges 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  fallow 

Shaly  loam 
Limy  loam 

73 

74 
75 

Kamary 

Tripolis 
Tripolis 

Mountain  slope,  ter- 
raced 
Hill  land,  rolling 
Valley,  nearly  level 

Grain  or  fallow 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  forage 

Silty  clay 

Stony  loam 
Silt  loam 

How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


443 


TABLE  1. — Continued 


Soil 

No. 

Town  nearby 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phorus 

Potas- 
sium 

Magne- 
sium 

Cal- 
cium 

Lime- 
stone 

Acid- 
ity 

32 

Armeni,  Crete 

286 

30 

2,419 

1,193 

453 

0 

5 

33 

Armeni,  Crete 

577 

489 

2,535 

71,320 

0 

34 

Chania,  Crete 

227 

71 

1,869 

605 

290 

0 

5 

35S 

Chania,  Crete 

229 

102 

3,317 

673 

290 

0 

5 

36 

Souda,  Crete 

429 

184 

3,902 

1,520 

949 

430 

0 

37 

Knosos,  Crete 

313 

91 

1,315 

148,740 

0 

38 

Candia,  Crete 

227 

111 

2,229 

63,080 

0 

39 

Phinika,  Crete 

343 

143 

2,547 

86,040 

0 

40 

Korytsa 

425 

167 

4,232 

8,840 

0 

41 

Korytsa 

231 

124 

1,900 

736 

4,352 

190 

0 

42 

Korytsa 

232 

145 

4,720 

1,240 

2,246 

1,180 

0 

43 

Yanina 

440 

1,172 

2,235 

4,280 

0 

44 

Soudovitra 

290 

352 

3,220 

1,098 

1,600 

0 

10 

45 

Yanina 

232 

183 

2,206 

645 

944 

0 

53 

46S 

Yanina 

201 

143 

2,685 

1,143 

615 

0 

244 

47 

Keletron 

228 

101 

3,066 

176 

418 

0 

5 

48S 

Keletron 

223 

121 

3,669 

44 

333 

0 

7 

49 

Keletron 

286 

61 

2,379 

947 

802 

0 

10 

SOS 

Keletron 

176 

105 

3,838 

1,777 

1,575 

0 

112 

51 

Kastoria 

259 

164 

4,549 

9,160 

0 

52     |Pella 

293 

168 

4,749 

.... 

12,640 

0 

53 

Koutsopodi 

257 

102 

1,716 

115,880 

0 

54 

Argos 

439 

167 

3,990 

3,880 

0 

55 

Argos 

228 

153 

2,668 

9,740 

0 

56 

Tatari 

380 

104 

2,703 

.... 

41,100 

0 

57 

Magoula 

300 

75 

3,541 

1,751 

2,683 

480 

0 

58 

Pharsala 

416 

255 

2,681 

4,523 

4,371 

1,260 

0 

59     |Lazarina 

318 

186 

3,738 

2,834 

1,812 

680 

0 

60 

Kapudji 

288 

155 

2,101 

4,559 

6,302 

520 

0 

61 

Salonica 

289 

103 

1,971 

27,480 

0 

62 

Dobitsa 

287 

102 

3,284 

73,040 

0 

0 

63 

Dobitsa 

232 

104 

4,263 

50,900 

0 

64 

Zichna 

204 

166 

5,721 

8,520 

0 

65 

Serres 

170 

202 

6,449 

8,820 

0 

66 

Drama 

303 

152 

3,899 

1,529 

2,745 

1,040 

0 

67 

Dokzat 

184 

81 

3,044 

310 

506 

0 

7 

68S 

Dokzat 

146 

73 

3,339 

429 

372 

0 

5 

69 

Philippi  ruins 

199 

41 

3,843 

342 

1,030 

0 

5 

70 

Drama 

265 

73 

2,349 

525 

1,233 

0 

7 

71 

Boutianoi 

228 

122 

4,505 

1,556 

653 

0 

7 

72 

Sparta 

285 

153 

2,173 

56,300 

0 

73 

Kamary 

410 

188 

3,993 

1,514 

2,361 

940 

0 

74 

Tripolis 

257 

143 

3,275 

8,180 

0 

75 

Tripolis 

257 

112 

2,348 

3,i39 

1,460 

0 

5 

444 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


TABLE  1. — Continued 


Soil 
No. 

Town 
nearby 

Topography  of  land 

Agricultural 
condition 

Character  of 
soil 

76 
77 
78 
79 
SOS 

Liopesi 
Marathon 
Marathon 
Marathon 
Marathon 

Piedmont  slope 
Piedmont  slope 
Piedmont  slope 
Coastal  plain,  level 
Coastal  plain,  level 

Grain  or  fallow 
Grain  or  idle 
Grain  or  fallow 
Rice  or  corn 
Rice  or  corn 

Very  stony  loam 
Stony  loam 
Sandy  loam 
Limy  muck 
Subsoil  of  79,  limy 
clay 

81     |Sageika  |Coastal  plain,  level          |Grain  or  pasture    |Clay  over  marl 

Limestone  is  a  mild  alkali,  which  is  the  opposite  of  an  acid.  Hot  water 
and  cold  water  cannot  exist  together,  for  the  one  neutralizes  the  other. 
Likewise,  alkali  and  acid  cannot  exist  together.  Vinegar  is  acid,  and  if 
powdered  limestone  is  added  to  vinegar  the  acidity  of  the  vinegar  will  be 
destroyed. 

Most  of  the  soils  of  Greece  contain  plenty  of  limestone,  but  this  is  not 
the  case  with  all  Greek  soils,  for  some  of  them  not  only  contain  no  lime- 
stone, but  they  show  acidity.  Limestone  is  somewhat  soluble  in  soil  water 
and  is  contained  in  most  well  waters  and  spring  waters  of  Greece.  Some- 
times, where  there  is  no  natural  source  of  renewal,  the  limestone  is  all 
removed  from  a  soil  by  the  drainage  waters,  and  subsequently  the  soil  may 
become  acid,  because  acidity  is  produced  in  the  decomposition  of  organic 
matter,  as,  for  example,  in  making  vinegar  from  sweet  cider  or  from  sweet 
wine,  in  the  souring  of  milk,  etc. 

The  acidity  produced  in  a  soil  is  likely  to  collect  or  accumulate  in  the 
subsoil,  and,  consequently,  when  the  surface  soil  contains  no  limestone  it  is 
important  to  test  the  subsoil  for  acidity.  In  the  last  column  of  the  right- 
hand  pages  of  the  table  are  given  the  amounts  of  acidity  found  in  the 
acid  soils,  as  measured  by  the  amount  of  limestone  that  the  acidity  would 
destroy.  Thus,  to  correct  or  neutralize  the  acidity  in  200,000  kilograms 
of  Soil  31  near  Mpilali  would  require  1,355  kilograms  of  limestone  and 
that  much  limestone  would  be  destroyed  in  the  process. 

A  soil  which  contains  no  limestone  and  no  acidity  is  neutral,  while 
an  acid  soil  is  below  zero  with  reference  to  limestone.  Thus,  Soil  31 
would  require  1,355  kilograms  of  limestone  to  bring  it  up  to  the  zero 
point.  If  two  tons  (2,000  kilograms)  of  limestone  were  mixed  with  this 
soil,  it  would  then  contain  only  645  kilograms  of  limestone.  If  a  little 
powdered  limestone  is  added  to  a  glass  of  vinegar,  the  limestone  will  be 
destroyed,  and  at  the  same  time  an  equivalent  amount  of  acid  in  the  vinegar 
will  be  destroyed.  After  enough  limestone  has  been  added  to  destroy  all 
the  acid  in  the  vinegar,  then  the  liquid  becomes  neutral,  and  more  lime- 
stone can  then  be  added  without  being  destroyed. 

The  limestone  in  the  soils  analyzed  varies  from  148,740  kilograms  in 
Soil  37  near  Knosos,  Crete,  down  to  1,355  kilograms  below  zero  (1,355 
kilograms  less  than  none),  as  it  might  be  expressed,  in  Soil  31. 


How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


445 


TABLE  1. — Continued 


Soil 
No. 

Town  nearby 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phorus 

Potas- 
sium 

Magne- 
sium 

Cal- 
cium 

Lime- 
stone 

Acid- 
ity 

76 

Liopesi 

316 

205 

3,222 

20,160 

0 

77 
78 

Marathon 
Marathon 

402 

228 

154 
163 

3,685 
2,500 

1,755 

2,858 

520 
18,180 

0 
0 

791 

Marathon 

654 

67 

252 

71,950 

0 

SOS 

Marathon 

3.48 

93 

4,022 

60,740 

0 

81     |Sageika 


205 


52     |    2,233  |    1,258  |    2,032 


600 


JNo.  79  is  a  light-weight  muck  soil  and  the  amounts  of  fertility  reported  are 
found  in  100,000  kilograms  per  stremma  about  15  centimeters  in  depth. 

VALUE  OF  SOIL  ANALYSIS 

Certainly  chemical  analyses,  properly  made  and  wisely  reported,  of  soil 
samples  intelligently  collected,  give  much  information  concerning  the  fer- 
tility of  soils.  This  information,  used  understandingly,  is  valuable.  Why 
do  the  farmers  cultivate  small  areas  of  sticky  clay  soil,  cleared  and  terraced 
at  large  expense,  on  the  steep,  rocky  mountain  slopes,  as  near  Likochia 
(Soil  14),  while  vast  areas  of  land  of  very  good  topography  and  of  much 
better  texture  lie  agriculturally  abandoned,  as  on  the  coastal  plain  near 
Lappa(  Soil  12)  ?  The  answer  is  undoubtedly  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
Likochia  soil  contains  ten  times  as  much  phosphorus  as  the  Lappa  soil  and 
from  three  to  five  times  as  much  of  the  other  important  elements  of 
fertility. 

Likewise,  in  all  physical  respects,  the  abandoned  nearly  level  ridge  land 
in  the  Megalopolis  valley  (Soil  27)  is  much  better  for  farming  than  the 
mountain  slope  near  Kalabryta  (Soil  24),  and  the  nitrogen  content  is 
nearly  equal;  but  the  Kalabryta  soil  contains  five  times  as  much  phos- 
phorus, twice  as  much  potassium,  three  times  as  much  magnesium,  and 
twenty  times  as  much  calcium;  it  is  also  rich  in  limestone,  while  the 
Megalopolis  soil  is  acid  in  its  surface  and  more  acid  in  the  subsoil,  and  of 
course,  contains  no  limestone. 

These  comparisons  are  interesting  because  they  plainly  indicate  that 
soil  analysis  may  be  of  much  service  to  agriculture.  However,  the  question 
remains  as  to  how  much  of  the  different  elements  a  good  soil  should  con- 
tain. First,  we  should  understand  that  while  the  analysis  is  very  helpful, 
it  does  not  furnish  all  the  information  required  by  one  who  wishes  to 
improve  his  soil. 

SOILS  POOR  IN  NITROGEN 

The  highly  productive  black  prairie  soil  of  the  great  agricultural  states 
of  America  contains  about  700  kilograms  of  nitrogen  per  stremma  of  plowed 
soil  to  a  depth  of  15  centimeters,  and  where  the  amount  falls  below  500 
kilograms,  methods  must  be  practiced  which  will  provide  some  additional 
source  of  nitrogen  if  large  crop  yields  are  to  be  secured. 


446  BULLETIN  No.  239  [July, 

No  soil  was  found  in  Greece  which  contained  700  kilograms  of  nitrogen, 
and  only  three  soils  were  sampled  which  contained  more  than  500  kilo- 
grams. These  are  Soil  79  (abnormal)  and  Soils  14  and  33,  both  found 
among  the  limestone  rocks  and  terraces  on  the  mountains.  Eleven  other 
soils  contain  from  350  to  500  kilograms,  a  fairly  good  amount,  but  the 
other  soils  examined  (four-fifths  of  the  total  number)  are  all  either  poor 
or  very  poor  in  nitrogen,  varying  from  less  than  350  to  less  than  150  kilo- 
grams per  stremma  of  plowed  soil. 

SOILS  RICH  AND  POOR  IN  PHOSPHORUS 

As  a  general  guide,  it  may  be  stated  that  good  productive  land  of  normal 
physical  character  contains  more  than  200  kilograms  of  phosphorus  per 
stremma  of  plowed  soil  to  a  depth  of  fifteen  centimeters.  This  statement 
is  based  upon  the  results  of  soil  investigations  conducted  in  different  parts 
of  Europe  and  America. 

Of  the  soils  reported  in  the  table,  only  eight,  or  one-tenth  of  the  soils 
examined,  contain  more  than  200  kilograms  of  phosphorus.  All  of  these 
are  on  mountain  slopes  or  low  mountain  tops  or  near  the  foot  of  mountains. 
Soils  44,  58,  and  65  are  all  composed  of  material  washed  down  from  the 
nearby  mountain  regions.  The  other  quite  similar  mountain  soils  contain — 
184  kilograms  in  Soil  36  near  Souda,  Crete,  164  kilograms  in  Soil  51  near 
Kastoria,  and  188  kilograms  in  Soil  73  near  Kamary-Tripolis.  As  an 
average  these  eleven  soils  contain  333  kilograms  of  phosphorus  per  stremma 
to  a  depth  of  15  centimeters. 

Other  soils  from  piedmont  slopes  which  seem  comparable  are  Soils  6, 
54,  66,  and  77 ;  and  Soil  7  represents  a  deposit  washed  from  the  nearby 
mountain  region.  These  soils  contain  between  150  and  200  kilograms  of 
phosphorus.  Soils  26,  37,  and  62  average  nearly  half  limestone,  which  seems 
to  account  for  their  low  phosphorus  content. 

In  general,  soils  which  have  been  formed  from  the  recent  decomposition 
of  limestone  and  do  not  still  contain  large  amounts  of  limestone  in  the 
fine  earth,  are  either  rich  in  phosphorus  or  moderately  well  supplied.  These 
soils  consist  largely  of  impurities  contained  in  the  original  limestone.  They 
are  found  among  the  limestone  rocks  or  terraces  on  the  mountains,  on  some 
piedmont  slopes,  and  in  some  valley  deposits  washed  from  such  mountain 
regions. 

Otherwise,  the  most  common  soils  of  Greece  vary  from  poor  to  very  poor 
in  phosphorus.  This  is  true  of  the  great  coastal  and  inland  plains  of  nearly 
level  topography,  of  the  broad  inter-mountain  valleys  and  plateaus,  and  of 
the  low  hills  and  ridges.  Most  of  the  idle  or  agriculturally  abandoned 
lands  are  very  poor  in  phosphorus,  altho  a  few  exceptions  were  found — 
eroding  hillsides  (Soil  26)  and  low,  poorly  drained  valley  land  (Soil  40), 
both  with  physical  difficulties;  or  where  acidity  (Soil  45)  or  greater  defi- 
ciency of  some  element  other  than  phosphorus  may  prevent  the  frequent 
production  of  profitable  crops. 


1922]  How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD  447 

SOILS  RICH  IN  POTASSIUM 

In  the  element  potassium,  the  common  soils  of  Greece  are  very  rich, 
few  of  them  showing  less  than  2,000  kilograms  per  stremma,  or  ten  times 
the  standard  minimum  set  for  phosphorus.  Undoubtedly  the  standard  for 
the  supply  of  potassium  should  be  higher  than  for  phosphorus,  but  there  is  no 
known  reason  for  having  it  ten  times  as  high.  Even  the  soils  near  Thebes 
(Soil  1)  and  Knossos  (Soil  37)  contain  about  ten  times  as  much  potassium 
as  phosphorus,  but  they  are  poor  in  phosphorus. 

The  only  soil  found  which  is  very  poor  in  potassium  is  the  muck  soil  near 
Marathon  (Soil  79).  Similar  soils  in  America  containing  as  much  as  300 
kilograms  of  potassium  per  stremma  in  the  surface  15  centimeters  have 
given  very  large  and  very  profitable  increases  in  crop  yields  by  the  addi- 
tion of  potassium.  However,  in  one  case  in  America  a  subsoil  rich  in 
potassium  was  found  under  the  muck;  this  was  mixed  with  the  muck  by 
very  deep  plowing  and  the  soil  was  thus  made  very  productive  with  no 
other  addition  of  potassium. 

It  will  be  noted  that  Soil  80  is  the  subsoil  of  79,  and  that  it  is  very  rich 
in  potassium.  Adequate  drainage  and  deep  plowing  to  incorporate  some 
of  the  clay  with  the  muck  are  recommended  for  the  improvement  of  this 
soil.  (Phosphorus  may  also  be  needed.) 

In  all  Greece,  we  found  no  soil  for  whose  improvement  we  can  recom- 
mend the  purchase  of  potassium  in  artificial  or  chemical  fertilizer. 

MUCH  LIMESTONE  AND  NONE  OR  WORSE 

For  good  production,  a  soil  should  contain  at  least  one  ton  ( 1 ,000  kilo- 
grams) of  pulverized  limestone  per  stremma  of  plowed  soil,  and  the  wise 
farmer  who  can  control  the  condition  will  not  permit  the  amount  to  fall 
below  500  kilograms,  unless  the  subsoil  between  15  and  50  centimeters  in 
depth  contains  plenty  of  limestone,  which  will  lessen  the  bad  influence  of  a 
too  small  supply  in  the  plowed  soil.  Where  the  soil  contains  no  limestone 
and  where  the  subsoil  contains  acidity,  the  conditions  are  very  bad;  and 
such  soils  exist  in  Greece  in  large  aggregate  area  and  in  many  widely 
separated  regions,  as  represented,  for  example,  by  Soils  9  to  13  from  the 
coastal  plain  about  Sageika  and  Lappa;  by  Soils  15,  16,  and  27  to  31 
from  the  ridge  lands  near  the  center  of  the  great  valley  of  Megalopolis; 
by  Soils  8  and  21  to  23  from  the  plateau  near  Gargalianoi;  by  Soils  34  and 
35  from  the  sloping  land  in  the  center  of  the  valley  or  coastal  plain  near 
Chania,  Crete ;  by  Soils  45  and  46  from  the  low,  broad  ridge  near  Yanina ; 
by  Soils  47  to  50  from  the  ridge  land  and  coastal  plain  across  the  lake  from 
Kastoria ;  and  by  Soils  67  to  70  from  the  great  plain  near  Drama. 

In  all  these  regions  some  soils  may  be  found  on  the  mountains  or  pied- 
mont slopes  which  are  rich  in  limestone,  as  are  also  the  soils  recently 
derived  from  these,  which  may  now  cover  the  extending  slopes  of  adjoining 
plains  or  valleys.  But  the  acid  soils  are  usually  found  on  plains,  ridges, 


448  BULLETIN  No.  239  [July, 

hills,  or  plateaus  which  have  lost  their  original  supply  of  limestone  and 
which  cannot  receive  additional  supplies  washed  down  from  higher  lying 
lands. 

Thus,  to  the  east  and  southeast  of  Megalopolis,  the  plain  and  foothills 
adjoining  the  mountain  slope  are  rich  in  limestone,  but  the  long,  broad 
ridges  which  project  far  out  into  the  great  valley  and  which  are  partly 
separated  from  the  foothills  by  depressions  across  the  ridges,  present  a  situ- 
ation in  which  acid  soil  might  be  expected ;  and  the  fact  is  that  while  those 
foothills  contain  abundance  of  limestone  (Soil  26)  the  soils  on  the  ridges 
extending  farther  into  the  valley  are  in  part  devoid  of  limestone  and  are 
agriculturally  abandoned  (Soils  27  to  31). 

FARMERS  CAN  TEST  SOILS 

Fortunately,  it  is  very  simple  and  easy  and  inexpensive  for  the  farmer 
himself  to  test  his  soil  for  the  presence  of  limestone.  If  a  drop  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  (or  any  other  strong  acid)  is  placed  on  the  soil,  the  presence 
of  limestone  will  cause  foaming,  because  the  acid  will  liberate  bubbles  of 
gas  (carbon  dioxid)  from  the  limestone.  If  no  limestone  is  found  in  the 
soil  or  subsoil  to  a  depth  of  30  centimeters,  then  the  subsoil  should  be 
tested  for  acidity.  To  do  this,  make  a  compact  ball,  larger  than  a  hen's 
egg,  of  the  subsoil  from  a  depth  of  about  50  centimeters.  Break  this  ball 
in  two,  insert  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper,  and  press  the  soil  together  again. 
After  about  five  minutes  open  the  ball  and  note  the  paper.  If  it  has  turned 
from  blue  to  a  reddish  color,  soil  acidity  is  indicated. 

Both  acid  and  litmus  paper  can  sometimes  be  purchased  at  small  cost 
from  the  village  doctor.  If  he  does  not  have  sensitive  blue  litmus  paper,  it 
can  be  secured  at  cost  from  the  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory  at  Athens. 

FERTILITY  IN  GREEK  SOILS 

To  summarize  the  information  secured  in  the  general  soil  survey  made 
by  the  American  Red  Cross  Commission,  it  may  be  stated : 

1.  All  of  the  normal  soils  examined  are  well  supplied  with  potassium, 
and  most  of  them  are  very  rich  in  that  element.    The  purchase  of  potassium 
in  artificial  fertilizer  is  not  recommended  for  the  practical  improvement 
of  any  soil  found  in  Greece. 

2.  Limestone  is  present  in  abundance  in  most  of  the  soils  of  Greece^ 
and  where  limestone  is  present,  it  always  contains  plenty  of  calcium  and 
there  is  not  likely  to  be  any  deficiency  of  magnesium.     But  some  soils  have 
been  found  which  are  not  only  devoid  of  limestone,  but  which  have  even 
become  sour  or  acid,  and  this  condition  should  be  corrected  by  the  liberal 
addition  of  limestone  dust  or  powder,  which  will  always  provide  sufficient 
calcium.     For  the  improvement  of  acid  soils  very  deficient  in  magnesium 
(as  Soil  47)  the  limestone  applied  should  be,  preferably,  dolomite  (calcium 
magnesium  carbonate). 


1988] 


How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


449 


3.  The  soils  found  on  the  terraces  among  the  limestone  rocks  on  the 
mountains  and  piedmont  slopes  are  normally  rich  in  phosphorus,  and  this 
is  also  true  of  soils  recently  washed  from  such  regions,  as  in  some  of  the 
small  valleys.  But  otherwise  the  soils  of  Greece  are  generally  poor  or  very 
poor  in  phosphorus,  and  this  is  the  only  element  which  need  be  purchased  in 
imported  or  manufactured  artificial  fertilizer  for  the  improving  of  the 
soils  and  increasing  the  food  production  of  Greece. 


0      I      It     Mt    ItK 


FIG.  3. — LIMESTONE  AND  PHOSPHORUS  ENABLE  MELILOTUS 
TO  GROW  IN  ACID  SOILS  (Soil  taken  near  Gargalianoi)1 

4.  All  of  the  normal  soils  examined  will  be  improved  by  some  addition 
of  nitrogen,  and  most  of  the  soils  of  Greece  are  either  poor  or  very  poor 
in  nitrogen.  But  fortunately  there  is  a  way  in  which  the  farmer  can  secure 
abundance  of  nitrogen  without  buying  it;  and  some  of  the  work  of  the 
American  Red  Cross  reported  in  the  following  pages  relates  to  the  practical 
means  of  getting  nitrogen  without  buying  it,  by  the  proper  use  of  suitable 
legume  plants. 

Thus,  to  double  the  production  of  food-grains  in  Greece  by  enriching 
the  soils  in  fertility  requires  the  use  of  only  three  materials  on  any  soil, 
of  only  two  on  most  soils,  and  of  only  one  on  a  few  soils.  These  three 
materials  are  limestone,  phosphorus,  and  legumes.  Their  sources  and 
utilization  will  be  discussed  in  order. 


LIMESTONE  IN  GREECE 

There  is  probably  no  country  in  the  world  which  is  better  supplied  with 
limestone  for  soil  improvement  than  Greece,  but  of  course  this  is  of  advan- 
tage to  agriculture  and  to  the  nation  only  when  use  is  made  of  it. 

There  are  two  distinctly  different  kinds  of  limestone.  In  pure  form 
one  of  these  is  calcium  carbonate,  CaCO3;  and  the  other  is  calcium 


lrThe  Greek   letters   shown  in   the  illustrations  thruout  this   bulletin   are   to  be 
interpreted  as  follows: 
0     =  No  treatment 
A    =  Limestone 
4>    =  Phosphorus 

Na  =  Sodium  chlorid  (common  salt) 
K    =  Kalium   (potassium) 
M  =  Melilotus  plowed  under 


450 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


magnesium  carbonate,  CaMg(CO3)2.  These  formulas  furnish  much  exact 
information  and  they  are  very  easily  understood.  Thus  Ca  is  the  symbol 
for  one  atom  of  calcium,  with  a  combining  weight  of  40.  Mg  likewise 
stands  for  one  atom  of  magnesium  weighing  24 ;  C  for  an  atom  of  carbon 
weighing  12;  and  O  for  an  atom  of  oxygen  weighing  16.  The  subscript 
figures  mean  that  the  preceding  symbol  or  parenthetic  group  is  taken  the 
number  of  times  indicated. 


FIG.  4. — RESULTS  OF  LIMESTONE  IN  GROWING  MELILOTUS 
IN  ACID  SOIL    (Soil  taken  near  Sageika) 

Thus  the  molecule  of  calcium  carbonate,  CaCO3,  weighs  100,  or  40  plus 
12  plus  48  (three  times  16),  and  the  molecule  of  dolomite,  CaMg(CO3)2, 
weighs  1 84.  But  the  dolomite  molecule  has  twice  as  much  power  to  correct 
acidity  as  the  CaCO3,  because  the  acidity  of  the  soil  merely  takes  the  place 
of  the  CO3  group.  Thus  92  kilograms  of  dolomite  is  as  valuable  for  soil 
improvement  as  100  kilograms  of  calcium  carbonate,  the  more  common 
limestone;  or  100  kilograms  of  dolomite  has  the  same  power  to  correct 
acidity  as  about  109  kilograms  of  common  limestone,  which  may  be  referred 
to  as  the  standard  of  comparison  for  relative  purity. 

This  simple  chemistry  can  be  and  should  be  taught  in  the  common 
schools,  and  it  can  be  and  should  be  well  understood  by  the  farming  people, 
who,  of  course,  have  at  least  as  much  ability  to  learn  as  the  people  who  live 
in  cities.  Indeed,  the  shepherd  boy  who  knows  the  faces,  forms,  and  names 
of  several  hundred  sheep,  often  so  that  he  can  recognize  their  children  and 
grandchildren,  may  be  quite  as  well  educated  for  his  profession  as  is  the 
city  boy  who  knows  more  of  ancient  Greek  or  other  languages.  Many  of 
the  greatest  men  were  country  boys:  Woodrow  Wilson  was  not  born  in 
New  York  City ;  nor  Lloyd-George  in  London ;  nor  Venizelos  in  Athens. 
If  given  a  fair  chance,  the  farmer  is  well  able  to  understand  the  simple 
science  which  relates  to  his  own  affairs. 

In  the  accompanying  table  is  reported  the  relative  purity  of  more  than 
forty  samples  of  limestone  from  different  parts  of  Greece,  including  the 
bedrock  of  the  mountain,  some  limy  subsoils,  marl,  and  limestone  "sand." 


1922] 


How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


451 


TABLE  2. — SOME  SOURCES  OF  LIMESTONE  IN  GREECE 


Lime- 
stone 
No. 

Town  nearby 

Source 
of 
limestone 

Character 
of 
material 

Relative 
purity, 
% 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 

Thebes 
Larissa 
Larissa 
Lamia 
Lianokladi 

Roads  tone 
Roadstone 
Subsoil 
Quarry 
Subsoil 

Crushed 
Crushed 
Fine  earth 
Bedrock 
Fine  earth 

99.7 
100.6 
41.2 
99.3 
45.0 

6 

7 
8 
9 

Nesion 
Arbanitsa 
Arbanista 
Pylos 

Roadstone 
Building  stone 
Subsoil 
Mountain  side 

Crushed 
Blocks 
Fine  earth 
Bedrock 

95.8 
96.6 
59.8 
98.8 

10 
11 
12 

Gargalianoi 
Likochia 
Megalopolis 

Mountain  side 
Mountain  side 
Old  ruins 

Bedrock 
Bedrock 
Blocks 

99.0 
98.0 
97.4 

13 
14 
15 
16 
17 

Gargalianoi 
Gargalianoi 
Gargalianoi 
Gargalianoi 
Gargalianoi 

In  city 
Out  of  city 
Out  of  city 
Out  of  city 
Out  of  city 

Impure  "sand" 
Building  "sand" 
Building  "sand" 
Building  "sand" 
Building  "sand" 

29.6 
97.6 
96.5 
99.3 

97.5 

18 
19 

Kalabryta 
Kalabryta 

Mountain  side 
Building  stone 

Bedrock 
Bedrock 

98.5 
94.2 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 

Armeni,  Crete 
Armeni,  Crete 
Souda,  Crete 
Souda,  Crete 
Souda,  Crete 
Souda,  Crete 
Chania,  Crete 

Mountain  side 
Mountain  side 
Mountain  side 
Mountain  side 
Mountain  side 
Mountain  top 
Roadstone 

Bedrock 
Bedrock 
Dark  stone 
Light  stone 
Weathered  stone 
Fallen  rock 
Crushed 

100.2 
96.5 
98.8 
96.5 
94.7 
101.1 
98.8 

27 
28 

Candia,  Crete 
Candia,  Crete 

Rocky  hilltop 
Rocky  hilltop 

Black  rock 
Black  rock 

107.5 
106.1 

29 
30 
31 
32 
33 

Korytsa 
Yanina 
Keletron 
Argos 
Pharsala 

Stone  quarry 
Stone  quarry 
Mountain  side 
Stone  quarry 
Mountain  side 

Stone  for  lime 
Bedrock 
Bedrock 
Bedrock 
Bedrock 

82.9 
99.0 
98.5 
100.1 
98.3 

34 
35 
36 

Drama 
Philippi 
Dokzat 

Mountain  side 
Mountain  side 
Roadstone 

Bedrock 
Bedrock 
Crushed 

100.0 
99.9 
98.8 

37 
38 
39 

Brylia,  Sparta 
Tripolis 
Tripolis 

Mountain  top 
Mountain  side 
Roadstone 

Bedrock 
Bedrock 
Crushed 

99.5 
99.6 
99.4 

40 
41 

42 

Sageika 
Sageika 
Sageika 

Subsoil  at  1  meter 
Subsoil  at  1^  m. 
Subsoil  at  1^  m. 

Marl 
Marl 
Marl 

59.2 
61.7 

57.2 

By  relative  purity  is  meant,  for  example,  that  100  kilograms  of  the 
mountain  rock  sampled  near  Drama  (Limestone  34)  contains  100  kilo- 
grams of  pure  calcium  carbonate  or  its  equivalent;  that  100  kilograms 
of  the  marl  found  at  a  depth  of  1  meter  near  the  railroad  station  at  Sageika 
(Limestone  40)  is  worth  as  much  for  soil  improvement  as  59.2  kilograms 
of  calcium  carbonate;  or  that  100  kilograms  of  the  black  dolomite  (Lime- 
stone 27)  found  on  the  hill  near  the  sea  about  8  kilometers  east  of  Candia, 
Crete,  is  as  valuable  as  107^  kilograms  of  pure  common  limestone. 


452 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


FIG.  5. — DUPLICATE  TEST  OF  THE  EFFECT  OF  LIMESTONE  (A)  IN 
GROWING  MELILOTUS  IN  ACID  SOIL  (Soil  taken  near  Gargalianoi) 

FARMERS  CAN  ANALYZE  LIMESTONE 

It  is  easily  possible,  and  often  desirable,  for  the  farmer  to  determine  for 
himself  the  relative  value  of  any  limestone  material  he  may  think  of  using 
for  soil  improvement:  Take  two  bottles  of  about  the  same  capacity  as 
drinking  glasses.  Fill  one  nearly  full  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  (made 
from  half  strong  acid  and  half  water)  and,  if  necessary,  to  reduce  trouble- 
some foaming,  add  a  few  drops  of  gas-engine  cylinder  oil.  In  the  second 
bottle  place  22^2  grams  of  the  limestone  to  be  tested.  Now  weigh  both 
bottles,  either  together  or  separately,  and  record  the  combined  weight. 
Then  partly  immerse  the  second  bottle  in  water  to  keep  it  cool  and  gradu- 
ally pour  part  of  the  acid  upon  the  limestone,  shaking  gently,  taking  perhaps 
five  minutes  to  add  enough  acid.  When  the  addition  of  more  acid  produces 
no  more  foaming,  then  blow  the  gas  out  of  both  bottles,  wipe  dry,  and 
re  weigh  them. 

For  every  gram  loss  in  weight  the  relative  purity  is  10  percent.  That 
is,  if  the  two  bottles  weigh  937  grams  before  the  reaction,  and  927  grams 
after  foaming  ceases,  the  loss  is  10  grams  from  22^  grams  of  the  lime- 
stone, which  means  that  it  is  100  percent  pure.  If  the  loss  is  only  4^2 
grams,  then  the  relative  purity  is  45  percent,  and  100  kilograms  would 
be  worth  as  much  as  45  kilograms  of  pure  common  limestone. 

A  balance  which  will  carry  a  load  of  1  kilogram  (1,000  grams)  and 
weigh  accurately  to  %o  gram  is  very  satisfactory  for  this  test.  (The 
village  doctor  or  druggist  may  have  such  a  balance,  and  the  village  school 
teacher  ought  to  have  one.) 

The  loss  in  weight  is  due  to  the  escape  of  the  gas  carbon  dioxid,  CO2, 
of  which  the  molecular  weight  must  be  44,  and  of  course  22^  grams  of 
pure  CaCOg  contain  practically  10  grams  of  CO2.  The  same  gas  is 
driven  out  of  limestone  on  burning,  leaving  from  100  kilograms  only  56 
of  quicklime,  CaO,  in  the  kiln : 

CaCO3  equals  CaO  plus  CO2 

Burned  lime  tends  to  burn  the  soil  and  is  not  so  good  as  the  limestone 
for  soil  improvement. 


How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


SOURCES  OF  LIMESTONE 


453 


Farmers  who  have  soils  deficient  in  limestone  should  search  for  some 
nearby  source  of  naturally  pulverized  limestone,  such  as  limy  subsoil  or 
a  deposit  of  marl  or  limestone  "sand" ;  and  of  course  the  District  Agri- 
culturists should  assist  the  farmers  in  this  search. 

Thus,  on  one  side  of  Gargalianoi  are  great  areas  of  abandoned  acid 
soil,  while  on  the  other  side  (about  1  kilometer  from  the  city)  is  an  immense 
deposit  called  "sand"  (Limestone  17),  which  has  been  used  as  building 
sand  by  the  people  of  Gargalianoi  for  hundreds  or  thousands  of  years;  but 
I  found  by  testing  this  material  that  it  is  not  ordinary  sand  but  a  limestone 
sand,  averaging  97.5  percent  pure,  and  already  in  finely  pulverized  form 
suitable  for  immediate  use  for  improving  the  acid  soils  nearby.  The  extent 
of  this  deposit  is  so  great  that  in  considering  the  extension  of  the  railroad 
from  Kyparisia  to  Gargalianoi  the  question  of  transporting  this  pulverized 
limestone  to  other  points  should  also  be  investigated. 

The  marl  deposit  found  at  Sageika  I  also  recommend  for  use  in  the 
improvement  of  the  extensive  areas  of  acid  soil  in  that  region.  Possibly 
in  the  digging  of  drainage  ditches,  which  are  there  needed  in  some  places, 


FIG.  6. — LARGE  DEPOSITS  OF  SANDY  LIMESTONE  NEAR  GARGALIANOI 

other  marl  deposits  may  be  found  and  taken  out  for  soil  improvement, 
thus  bringing  two  benefits  from  one  operation. 

In  other  regions,  where  naturally  pulverized  limestone  cannot  be  found 
(perhaps  at  Drama,  Keletron-Kastoria,  Yanina,  Chania,  Crete,  etc.)  water 
power  should  be  developed,  if  practicable,  to  operate  limestone  crushers 
and  grinders.  It  is  not  necessary  that  they  be  operated  every  month  in  the 
year.  Pulverized  limestone  may  be  kept  indefinitely,  for  it  does  not 
depreciate  appreciably  on  exposure. 

On  many  acid  soils  very  great  improvement  can  be  made  merely  by  the 
use  of  limestone  and  legumes,  but  of  course  phosphorus  may  also  be 
necessary  for  the  best  results. 


454 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


SOURCES  OF  PHOSPHORUS 

The  phosphorus  supply  of  the  world  is  found  chiefly  in  deposits  of  a 
natural  rock  called  calcium  phosphate,  Ca3(PO4)2.  The  atom  of  phos- 
phorus, represented  by  P,  weighs  31,  and,  from  this  fact  and  those  previously 
given,  anyone  can  compute  that  this  molecule  weighs  310  and  that  phosphate 
rock,  if  pure,  contains  20  percent  of  phosphorus.  In  general,  the  phosphate 
rock  found  contains  only  about  70  percent  of  this  calcium  phosphate,  corre- 
sponding to  14  percent  of  phosphorus,  or  14  kilograms  of  phosphorus  in 
100  of  the  natural  rock. 

The  principal  known  deposits  of  phosphate  rock  are  in  the  United 
States  of  America  and  in  northern  Africa,  from  where  it  must  be  brought 


FIG.  7. — RESULTS  OF  LIMESTONE  AND 
PHOSPHORUS  IN  GROWING  MELILOTUS 
(Samples  from  field  tests  at  Sageika, 
harvested  May  21,  1919) 


FIG.  8. — RESULTS  OF  LIMESTONE  AND 
PHOSPHORUS  IN  GROWING  MELILOTUS 
(Samples  from  field  tests  at  Garga- 
lianoi,  harvested  May  21,  1919) 


to  Greece.  The  phosphate  rock  is  sometimes  ground  to  a  very  fine  powder 
and  then  applied  to  the  land  in  connection  with  fresh  organic  matter,  such 
as  legume  crops  plowed  under  with  it;  but  more  commonly  one  ton  of 
the  ground  phosphate  rock  is  mixed  with  about  one  ton  of  sulfuric  acid, 
making  two  tons  of  what  is  called  in  Europe  superphosphate,  but  more 
properly  acid  phosphate,  as  it  is  called  in  America,  for  it  is  an  acid  product 
and  it  contains  not  a  higher  percentage  of  phosphorus  than  the  natural  rock, 
but  only  about  half  as  much.  However,  the  phosphorus  in  the  acid  phos- 
phate is  soluble  and  thus  more  valuable  than  in  the  insoluble  natural  rock, 
which,  if  used,  must  be  made  soluble  by  the  decomposition  products  of  the 
decaying  organic  matter.  It  is  safer  to  use  the  acid  phosphate  until  a  good 
supply  of  organic  matter  can  be  plowed  under ;  then  the  relative  cost  will 
help  to  decide  which  to  use. 

Per  hundred,  the  natural  rock  phosphate  contains  about  14  of  phos- 
phorus, and  the  acid  phosphate  about  7.  Sometimes  the  analysis  is  reported 
in  terms  of  so-called  "phosphoric  acid,"  by  which  is  meant  not  true  phos- 


1922]  How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD  455 

phoric  acid,  but  phosphoric  oxid,  P2O5.  As  one  can  easily  compute  .from 
the  atomic  weights,  14  percent  of  phosphorus,  P,  is  the  same  as  32  percent 
of  P2O5;  and  7  percent  of  the  actual  element  phosphorus  is  all  that  is 
valuable  in  acid  phosphate  guaranteed  to  contain  16  percent  of  "phosphoric 
acid." 

Where  phosphorus  is  needed,  the  initial  application  may  well  be  100 
kilograms  of  acid  phosphate  per  stremma,  to  be  spread  over  the  land  as 
uniformly  as  the  seed  and  then  plowed  into  the  soil  with  the  seed  of  wheat, 
barley,  rye,  or  oats.  Subsequent  applications  may  be  from  30  to  50  kilo- 
grams per  stremma  for  each  grain  crop. 

For  the  general  prosperity  of  all  the  people  of  Greece,  there  is  no  one 
thing  more  important  than  that  the  farmers  should  be  able  to  secure  an 
adequate  supply  of  phosphorus  at  a  reasonable  cost;  and  there  is  nothing 
else  more  important  for  the  national  government  to  control  than  the 
importation,  manufacture,  distribution,  and  sale  of  phosphate  for  soil 
improvement. 

If  the  soils  which  are  deficient  in  limestone  can  be  well  limed,  and  if 
those  soils  which  need  phosphorus  can  also  be  well  treated  with  phosphate, 
then  the  one  remaining  problem  of  soil  fertility  relates  to  the  use  of  legumes ; 
and  this  concerns  practically  all  of  the  soils  of  Greece,  -including  even  the 
mountain  soils. 

NITROGEN  MAY  COST  MUCH  OR  NOTHING 

Of  all  the  elements  essential  to  plant  growth,  nitrogen  is  the  most 
abundant  in  the  supply  within  reach  of  the  farmer  and  it  is  also  the  most 
expensive  when  purchased  in  artificial  fertilizers.  The  world's  great  supply 
of  nitrogen  is  in  the  air.  There  is  enough  nitrogen  in  the  air  resting  upon 
each  stremma  of  land  to  meet  the  needs  of  large  crops  for  half  a  million  of 
years ;  and  science  has  discovered  that  there  is  a  way  in  which  the  farmers 
can  secure  nitrogen  from  this  inexhaustible  supply.  This  way  is  by  means 
of  microscopic  organisms,  called  bacteria,  which,  under  favorable  conditions, 
have  power  to  live  in  nodules  on  the  roots  of  one  class  of  plants,  called 
legumes,  including  the  clovers,  lupines,  vetches,  peas,  and  beans. 

Neither  the  grain  crops  nor  the  grasses,  nor  any  other  agricultural 
plants,  except  legumes,  are  able  to  secure  nitrogen  from  the  air;  and  the 
legumes  secure  it  only  by  means  of  the  bacteria.  Thus  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  proper  bacteria,  and  the  legume  crops  must  be  grown  and  returned  to 
the  soil  either  by  plowing  them  under  or  by  feeding  the  crops  to  animals 
and  returning  the  manure  to  the  land,  as  for  example,  by  pasturing. 

HOW  MUCH  NITROGEN  IS  NEEDED 

If  the  fanner  will  provide  limestone  or  phosphorus,  if  needed,  as  advised 
in  the  preceding  pages,  then  he  need  use  only  as  much  knowledge  in  pro- 
viding nitrogen  for  his  crops  as  he  would  in  providing  food  for  his  animals 
or  for  his  family.  If  he  wishes  to  grow  3,000  kilograms  of  wheat  on  1 


456  BULLETIN  No.  239  [July, 

hectar  (10  stremma)  of  land,  he  should  know  that  the  wheat  will  require 
100  kilograms  of  nitrogen,  or  10  kilograms  for  each  stremma. 

Of  course  300  kilograms  of  wheat  per  stremma  is  a  large  yield,  but  no 
larger  than  can  be  grown  in  favorable  seasons  if  the  fertility  is  provided  in 
sufficient  amount.  How  is  one  to  provide  100  kilograms  of  nitrogen  for 
1  hectar?  One  ton  (1,000  kilograms)  of  average  farm  manure  contains 
5  kilograms  of  nitrogen.  Thus  2  tons  of  manure  per  stremma,  or  20  tons 
per  hectar,  would  provide  the  nitrogen  required  for  the  wheat.  If  the 
supply  of  manure  were  sufficient,  the  problem  would  be  solved ;  but  every 
farmer  knows  that  the  supply  of  manure  is  not  sufficient. 

HOW  TO  GET  NITROGEN 

The  legume  crops  commonly  grown  in  Greece  add  very  little  nitrogen 
to  the  soil.  Some  of  them  are  pulled  out,  both  the  tops  and  roots  being 
removed,  and  this  practice  leaves  the  land  poorer  in  nitrogen.  Even  when 
the  roots  are  left  in  the  soil,  they  will  contain  no  more  nitrogen  than  was 
taken  by  the  legume  crop  from  a  soil  of  average  productivity,  so  that  that 
practice  would  not  enrich  the  soil  in  nitrogen. 

To  grow  a  legume  crop  and  turn  it  all  back  into  the  soil  is  not  very 
satisfactory,  because  for  that  year  there  is  some  expense  and  no  reward  from 
the  land.  A  better  practice,  and  one  which  should  fit  well  into  the  common 
system  of  grain  and  fallow,  is  to  grow  a  legume  crop  of  large  pasture  value 
during  the  fallow  year.  For  this  purpose  a  clover  known  by  the  name  of 
melilotus  is  worthy  of  very  thoro  and  long-continued  trials.  This  crop 
is  very  hardy,  has  much  ability  to  resist  drouth,  and  it  will  also  endure  much 
wet  weather. 

Melilotus  has  high  value  for  pasture  or  for  hay.  It  is  much  used  in 
America  and  is  especially  valuable  for  pasture  for  all  kinds  of  live  stock — 
cattle,  horses,  sheep,  swine,  etc.  It  is  a  two-year  plant.  It  may  be  seeded 
during  the  spring,  summer,  or  autumn,  the  best  time  depending  upon  the 
climatic  conditions.  The  first  season  it  usually  makes  good  growth  and 
develops  an  extensive,  rather  fleshy  root  system.  The  following  spring  it 
makes  very  rapid  growth  and  may  be  pastured  far  into  the  summer,  or 
harvested  for  hay  before  the  plants  become  too  rank,  or  allowed  to  mature 
seed.  It  may  also  be  pastured  for  a  time  and  then  allowed  to  grow  for  hay 
or  seed ;  or,  if  the  crop  is  harvested  early  and  cut  high  above  the  ground, 
it  may  then  make  a  later  growth  for  seed  or  for  pasture.  To  secure  a 
second  growth,  the  plant  should  be  cut  early  enough  and  high  enough  to 
leave  two  or  more  good  growing  branches  on  the  stubble  of  each  plant. 

NITROGEN  IN  MELILOTUS 

One  ton  of  dry  melilotus  hay  contains  about  23  kilograms  of  nitrogen, 
and  the  roots  contain  more  nitrogen  than  the  roots  of  peas,  beans,  vetches, 
etc.  If  the  growth  of  melilotus  were  equivalent  to  600  kilograms  per 
stremma  of  dry  hay,  and  if  500  kilograms  were  eaten  by  pasturing  animals, 


1922}  How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD  457 

the  total  nitrogen  added  to  the  soil  would  be  more  than  10  kilograms  per 
stremma ;  for,  as  an  average,  the  excrements  from  growing  or  milking  ani- 
mals contain  three-fourths  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  feed  consumed.  Thus 
the  melilotus  may  furnish  much  valuable  feed  for  the  pasturing  animals, 
and  it  may  also  serve  as  a  substitute  for  20  tons  of  manure  per  hectar. 
I  know  of  no  other  legume  plant  of  so  high  feeding  value  which  will  make 
so  good  growth  and  provide  so  much  soil  enrichment  and  which  may  fit  so 
perfectly  into  the  common  system  of  grain  and  fallow. 

Wherever  the  soil  contains  limestone,  the  melilotus  should  grow  success- 
fully from  September  or  October  till  June  or  July;  but  where  the  soil  is 
poor  in  phosphorus,  both  the  melilotus  and  the  alternating  grain  crops  will 
be  benefited  by  phosphorus  fertilizing.  In  America  melilotus  is  often 
seeded  among  the  growing  grain  in  midwinter.  It  lives  thru  the  summer 
drouth  after  the  grain  is  harvested,  makes  a  good  growth  during  the  autumn, 
and  a  large  growth  the  next  spring.  Whether  it  will  live  thru  the  more 
severe  drouth  of  the  Greek  summer  is  not  known,  but  it  is  more  drouth- 
resistant  than  alfalfa  or  other  common  clovers. 

SOIL  ACIDITY  AND  PLANT  DISEASE 

On  acid  soil  melilotus  will  not  succeed,  nor  will  alfalfa  or  any  other 
common  clover  of  a  life  period  of  more  than  one  year.  Some  annual  legumes 
can  be  grown  with  a  fair  degree  of  success  on  some  soils  which  do  not  con- 
tain limestone.  Among  these  are  the  lupine,  cowpea,  crimson  clover,  and 
Japan  clover.  These  are  all  known  in  America  and  all  except  the  lupine 
are  much  grown.  The  lupine  has  no  value  for  pasture  or  for  hay,  and  even 
the  seeds  must  be  treated  to  make  them  fit  for  feed.  However,  where  no 
better  plant  can  be  grown,  the  lupine  should  have  large  use  for  soil  improve- 
ment and  if  practicable  all  of  the  plant  except  the  seed  should  be  returned 
to  the  land. 

Most  legumes  are  subject  to  disease  if  grown  frequently  on  the  same 
land,  and  this  may  account  for  the  increasing  difficulty  of  growing  lupines 
in  some  parts  of  Greece,  the  soil  having  become  "sick"  of  lupines.  So  far 
as  known,  soils  do  not  become  "sick"  or  diseased  from  the  frequent  grow- 
ing of  alfalfa  or  melilotus. 

THE  PROOF  OF  SOIL  IMPROVEMENT 

In  the  accompanying  table  are  recorded  the  weights  of  green  melilotus 
harvested  from  thirty-eight  pots  filled  with  soil  from  different  parts  of 
Greece  and  treated  as  indicated.  Since  the  purpose  of  these  culture  experi- 
ments was  to  secure  information  as  easily  as  possible,  the  applications  made 
to  these  pots  (and  also  in  the  field  experiments  reported)  were  more  liberal 
than  is  recommended  for  ordinary  farming.  The  pots  were  nearly  20 
centimeters  in  diameter,  with  a  surface  area  of  about  300  square  centi- 
meters. The  applications  indicated  were,  per  pot,  6  grams  of  acid 


458 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


TABLE  3. — MELILOTUS  IN  POT  CULTURES 
(Grams  per  pot  of  green  plants) 


Pot 
No. 

Soil 

treatment1 

Series  A 

Series  B      Series  A  |  Series  B 

Averages 

Soil  17  from  Larissa 

Soil  18  from  Thebes 

Four 
pots 

Eight 
pots 

2 
3 
4 
5 

0.  . 

37.7 
95.0 
84.2 
82.0 

40.9 
108.5 
84.1 
74.0 

30.4           17.6 
103.7         112.3 
125.0         132.5 
115.8         117.8 

32 
105 
106 

97 

P  

PNa.  ;  

PK  

Soil  19  from  Sageika 

Soil  23  from  Gargalianoi 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

0.  . 

19.0 
63.0 
75.8 
84.0 
85.0 

25.1 
39.0 
67.2 
88.9 
89.9 

9.7             3.9 
23.5           22.2 
71.0           62.1 
74.3           82.5 
72.0           79.8 
30.0          27.6 

14 
37 
69 
82 
82 
29 

34 
87 
94 
90 

L  

LP  

LPNa  

LPK  

PK  

1 0     —  No  treatment 

P    =  Phosphorus  in  the  form  of  acid  phosphate 
Na  =:  Sodium  in  the  form  of  sodium  chlorid   (common  salt) 
K    =  Potassium  in  the  form  of  potassium  chlorid 
L    =  Limestone 

phosphate,  2.975  grams  of  sodium  chlorid,  3.73  grams  of  potassium  chlorid, 
and  150  grams  of  limestone. 

Phosphorus  produced  a  marked  increase  in  yield  in  every  case,  the 
general  average  of  all  trials  being  53  grams  (from  34  to  87).  The  soils 
from  Larissa  and  Thebes  both  contain  limestone,  but,  where  limestone  was 
applied  to  the  acid  soils  from  Sageika  and  Gargalianoi,  it  gave  a  large 
increase  in  every  case,  whether  applied  alone  or  in  addition  to  phosphorus 
and  potassium,  the  general  average  increase  from  six  trials  being  31  grams 
(from  14  to  52).  Thus  the  results  of  the  pot-culture  experiments  agree 
well  with  those  of  soil  analysis. 

POTASSIUM  IN  DEAD  SOILS 

Soils  may  become  so  poor  in  decaying  organic  matter  that  they  are  very 
inactive — almost  dead  soils,  so  to  speak.  Such  soils,  even  tho  rich  in 
potassium,  may  show  some  increase  in  crop  yield  from  its  application  in 
soluble  form.  Because  of  this  fact,  the  molecular  equivalent  of  common 
salt  was  also  applied,  and  it  produced  rather  better  effects  than  the  potassium 
salt.  The  Larissa  soil  is  very  rich  in  potassium,  and  evidently  furnished  all 
the  plants  could  well  tolerate,  for  the  addition  of  either  potassium  or  sodium 
produced  a  decrease  in  yield.  On  all  other  soils  those  salts  produced  some 
increase,  which  was  most  consistent  on  the  soils  from  Thebes  and  Sageika, 
which  contain  less  potassium  than  the  Gargalianoi  soil.  With  fresh  organic 
matter  turned  under,  as  in  manure  or  legumes,  the  liberation  of  potassium 
from  the  soil  is  likely  to  be  ample,  and  these  results  certainly  indicate  that, 
if  needed  temporarily,  the  common  salt  should  be  used  rather  than  the  ex- 
pensive potassium  salt.  As  the  average  of  trials  with  barley  and  wheat 


1922} 


How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


459 


grown  for  sixty  years  on  the  fields  of  the  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station, 
sodium  produced  8  kilograms  more  barley  and  12  kilograms  less  wheat, 
per  stremma,  than  potassium. 

GOOD  GRAIN  AFTER  GOOD  MELILOTUS 

After  being  harvested  and  weighed,  the  melilotus  from  Series  A  was 
dried  for  hay  and  then  analyzed  for  nitrogen,  while  that  from  Series  B  was 
partially  dried  and  then  mixed  with  the  roots  in  the  soil.  The  pots  of 
Series  B,  including  some  which  had  not  been  planted  to  melilotus,  were 
then  planted  to  millet,  in  order  to  show  that  good  grain  crops  can  be  grown 
after  melilotus  without  the  use  of  any  other  source  of  manure  or  nitrogen. 


FIG.  9. — PHOSPHORUS  (<J>)  ENABLES  MELILOTUS  TO  GROW  IN  SOME  SOILS  RICH 
IN  LIMESTONE   (Soil  taken  near  Thebes) 


FIG.  10. — CEREALS  GROW  BEST  WHERE  A  GOOD 
STAND  OF  MELILOTUS  (M)  HAS  BEEN  GROWING 
(Soil  taken  near  Thebes.  See  Table  4  for  yields) 

The  accompanying  tables  give  the  results  in  detail.  Of  course,  if  the 
melilotus  were  pastured  (not  too  closely)  the  profits  would  be  greater, 
and  the  yield  of  grain  following  might  also  be  greater  than  we  secured, 
because  the  melilotus  turned  into  the  soil  decayed  too  rapidly,  and  in  the 
Gargalianoi  pots  this  injured  the  millet  to  some  extent.  (Pot  3  did  not 
recover  from  this  injury.) 


460 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


TABLE  4. — MILLET  IN  POT  CULTURES  (SERIES  B) 
(Grams  per  pot  of  green  plant) 


Pot 

No. 

Soil 
treatment1 

Soil  from 
Larissa 

Soil  from 
Thebes 

Averages 

Two  series  |Four  series 

1 
2 

3 
4 

5 

0          (0) 

57 
56 
207 
240 
184 

21 
37 
167 
215 
194 

39 

47 
187 
228 
189 

M  (M) 

MP  (M*) 

MPNa  (M*Na) 

MPK  (M*K) 

Soil  from 
Sageika 

Soil  from 
Gargalianoi 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

0    .            ...(0) 

23 
47 
103 
148 
200 
201 

16 
14* 
5* 
125* 
153* 
116* 

20 
30 
54 
137 
177 
159 

30 

'so 

162 
202 
174 

M  (M) 

ML  (MA) 

MLP  (MA*) 

MLPNa....(MA<j>Na) 
MLPK  (MA*K) 

7 

MPK  (M*K) 

99* 

8 
1*9 

rio 

LP  (A*) 

83 
80 

82 

LPNa  (A*Na) 

LPK  (A*K) 

JM  =  Melilotus  plowed  under.  For  the  meaning  of  other  symbols  used,  see  the 
footnote  of  Table  3. 

The  limestone,  phosphorus,  sodium,  and  potassium  for  Pots  1  to  6  were  applied 
before  the  melilotus  was  seeded. 

*Damaged  by  ammonia  from  melilotus  which  did  not  change  quickly  to  nitrate 
in  clay  soil. 

In  studying  the  yields  of  millet,  we  must  remember  that  melilotus  is 
a  substitute  for  animal  manure,  and  that  the  average  increase  of  112  grams 
(from  50  to  162)  where  phosphorus  was  applied  was  due  in  part  to  the 


Frc.  11. — THE  EFFECT  OF  MELILOTUS  (M)  ON  THE 
SUCCEEDING  CEREAL  CROP  (Soil  taken  near  Gargalianoi) 


1922] 


461 


MA     MA*    WMt    MMK 


FIG.  12. — CEREALS  GROW  BEST  WHERE  A  GOOD 
STAND  OF  MELILOTUS  (M)  HAS  BEEN  GROWING 
(Soil  taken  near  Sageika.  See  Table  4  for  yields)  . 

fact  that  those  pots  had  received,  as  an  average,  87  grams  of  melilotus  as  a 
manure,  whereas  the  pots  on  which  no  phosphorus  had  been  applied  had 
received  an  average  of  only  34  grams. 

In  spite  of  the  damage  to  the  Gargalianoi  pots,  the  yield  of  millet  on  the 
best  pot  (153  grams)  was  nearly  double  that  on  the  corresponding  un- 
damaged pot  (No.  9)  which  had  not  grown  melilotus.  The  uniformity  of 
Pots  8,  9,  and  10  indicates  a  uniform  lack  of  nitrogen. 

As  the  general  average  of  results  from  the  four  series,  the  yield  of  millet 
was  increased  from  30  grams  to  202  grams  by  soil  enrichment,  and  without 
the  purchase  of  either  nitrogen  or  potassium,  whose  inexhaustible  supplies 
are  in  the  air  and  soil. 


TABLE  S. — HAY  AND  NITROGEN  FROM  MELILOTUS  (POT  CULTURES,  SERIES  A) 
Kilograms  per  stremma 


Pot 

Soil 

Hay          | 

Nitrogen 

Hay          |      Nitrogen 

No. 

treatment 

Larissa 

soil 

Thebes  soil 

2 

0  

340 

g 

270                         6 

T 

P  

710 

19 

800                       20 

4 

PNa  

640 

18 

970                       21 

5 

PK  

630 

18 

840                       22 

Sageika 

soil 

Gargalianoi  soil 

2 

0.  . 

160 

4 

70                         2 

3 

L  

490 

13 

180                         4 

4 

LP  

570 

16 

580                       15 

5 

LPNa.. 

640 

17 

590                        15 

6 

LPK  

610 

17 

560                        1'4 

7 

PK  

260                         6 

In  the  accompanying  table  are  given  the  yields  and  the  nitrogen  con- 
tent of  the  melilotus  hay  harvested  from  Series  A  of  the  pot  cultures.  It 
will  be  seen  that  in  all  cases  where  limestone  and  phosphorus  were  well 
provided,  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  melilotus  was  more  than  10  kilo- 


462 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


grams  per  stremma.  In  fact,  the  general  average  was  more  than  17  kilo- 
grams ;  and,  besides  that,  the  roots  of  the  melilotus  probably  contained  half 
as  much  as  the  tops,  altho  the  nitrogen  in  the  roots  may  be  no  more  than 
good  soil  would  furnish  to  any  crop.  Thus  the  amounts  of  nitrogen  shown 
in  the  table  may  safely  be  considered  as  new  nitrogen  secured  from  the 
air  and  at  no  cost  if  the  melilotus  for  pasture  is  worth  the  cost  of  seeding. 
Before  the  war  17  kilograms  of  nitrogen  cost  34  drachmas  in  85  kilo- 
grams of  ammonium  sulfate  and  much  more  in  mixed  commercial  fertilizers, 
and  at  present  this  much  nitrogen,  if  purchased,  would  cost  more  than  100 
drachmas  per  stremma.  For  grain  and  forage  crops  the  wise  farmer  will 
take  his  nitrogen  from  the  free  and  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  air  and  be 
independent  of  the  market  price. 


FIELD  TRIALS  WITH  MELILOTUS 


In  the  pot  cultures  the  plants  were  watered  when  necessary,  and  hence 
the  yields  computed  per  stremma  are  larger  than  would  be  secured  during 
the  same  time  under  normal  field  conditions,  but  field  experiments  were 
also  started  on  similar  soils  at  Larissa,  Sageika,  and  Gargalianoi.  Melilotus 


FIG.  13. — MELILOTUS  IN  FIELD  TRIALS  NEAR  GARGALIANOI.     ON  THE 
LEFT,  NO  TREATMENT;    ON  THE  RIGHT,  LIMESTONE  AND  PHOSPHORUS 

seeded  January  2,  1919,  at  Larissa  was  a  failure.  (Wheat  seeded  the  same 
day  by  a  farmer  on  adjoining  land  was  also  a  complete  failure,  owing  to 
too  much  rain  for  level  land.) 

At  Sageika  the  land  was  prepared  and  seeded  the   10th  of  January 
and  the  melilotus  harvested  the  21st  of  May,  and  at  Gargalianoi  abandoned 


How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD 


463 


land  was  prepared  and  seeded  the  15th  of  January  and  the  melilotus 
harvested  the  23d  of  May,  1919.  The  yields  of  dried  melilotus  hay  and 
its  nitrogen  content  computed  per  stremma  are  given  in  Table  6. 

In  essentials,  these  field  results  tell  the  same  story  as  the  pot  experi- 
ments and  agree  well  with  the  information  secured  by  soil  analysis.     The 

TABLE  6. — MELILOTUS  IN  FIELD  TRIALS 
Hay  and  nitrogen,  kilograms  per  stremma 


Plot 

Soil 

Sageika  field 

Gargalianoi  field 

No. 

treatment 

Hay                Nitrogen 

Hay                Nitrogen 

101 

0.  . 

15                         .5 

22                          6 

102 

L  

74                     2.2 

85                     2.0 

103 

LP  

309                    8.6 

315                     9.5 

Border 

P  

31'                    l.O1 

51                      1.4 

Computed  from  a  later  harvest. 

use  of  limestone  is  very  important  for  improving  these  acid  soils,  but  both 
limestone  and  phosphorus  are  necessary  for  the  best  results  with  legumes; 
and  of  course  the  legumes  are  also  necessary  to  secure  the  nitrogen  required 
by  the  grain  crops  to  follow. 

In  these  field  trials  on  very  poor  land  on  which  limestone  and  phosphorus 
were  applied,  the  melilotus  seeded  in  January  yielded  in  May  per  stremma 
more  than  300  kilograms  of  dried  hay  and  about  9  kilograms  of  nitrogen, 
enough  for  a  crop  of  270  kilograms  of  wheat  per  stremma,  which  is  more 
than  three  times  the  present  average  yield  of  wheat  in  Greece. 

These  facts  must  speak  for  themselves.  Greece  can  easily  double  her 
production  of  food  grains  if  the  facts  established  about  the  use  of  limestone, 


FIG.  14 — MELILOTUS  IN  FIELD  TRIALS  NEAR  SAGEIKA.     ON  THE  LEFT,  NO 
TREATMENT;    ON  THE  RIGHT,  LIMESTONE 


464 


BULLETIN  No.  239 


[July, 


FIG.  15. — MELILOTUS  IN  FIELD  TRIALS  NEAR  SAGEIKA,  ON 

WHICH  APPLICATIONS  OF  LIMESTONE   AND  PHOSPHORUS 

HAVE  BEEN   MADE     (Compare  with  Fig.   14) 

phosphorus,  and  legumes  are  put  into  practice  on  the  farms  with  as  much 
intelligence  as  is  commonly  used  by  Greek  farmers  in  dealing  with  their 
other  farm  affairs. 


WINE,  TOBACCO,  OR  BREAD 

To  the  Greeks  or  foreigners  who  have  advised  that  I  should  encourage 
the  production  of  more  grapes  and  tobacco  because  they  yield  more  profit 
per  stremma  than  food  grains  and  forage,  I  would  only  say  that  profit  per 
man  is  more  important  than  profit  per  stremma,  especially  when  vast  areas 
of  land  lie  unused  or  abandoned ;  that  the  Government  has  already  reduced 
the  area  in  vineyards  and  restricted  the  exportation  of  tobacco  because  of 
overproduction  or  unprofitable  markets  for  currants  and  tobacco;  and  that 
raising  tobacco  or  wine  for  the  big  buyers  or  for  home  consumption  is  too 
much  like  gambling  or  of  too  uncertain  advantage  to  the  ultimate  welfare 
of  the  people,  to  justfy  special  encouragement  by  such  a  public  or  philan- 
thropic organization  as  the  Red  Cross. 

I  may  add  that  America  reduced  her  annual  exportation  of  wheat 
(by  five-year  averages)  from  215  million  kilos  in  1900  to  103  million  kilos 
in  1910  in  order  to  feed  her  increase  of  16  million  people;  that  America 
furnished  wheat  to  the  Allies  during  the  war  to  preserve  civilization  only 
because  Americans  were  willing  to  eat  corn  for  a  time;  and  that,  if  the 
Greeks  wish  to  eat  wheat  bread  in  the  future,  they  should  prepare  to  raise 
the  wheat. 


1922]  How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD  .  465 


RECOMMENDATIONS 

As  the  Red  Cross  representative  of  American  agricultural  investigation 
and  education,  I  respectfully  offer  the  following  recommendations,  which 
are  based  not  only  upon  my  year's  study  of  the  present  conditions  in  Greece, 
but  also  upon  the  experience  and  progress  of  America  in  the  application  of 
agencies  of  civilization  which  ancient  Greece  did  much  to  originate  but  in 
whose  modern  development  Greece  has  not  been  permitted  to  fully  share 
because  of  foreign  domination. 

1.  That  Greece  establish  as  early  as  practicable  a  strong  college  of 
agriculture  and  an  agricultural  experiment  station  as  a  worthy  and  desirable 
part  of  the  great  national  University  at  Athens.    The  teachers  and  investi- 
gators in  this  college  and  experiment  station  should  know  well  the  art  of 
agriculture  and  understand  the  difficulties  met  in  farm  practice,  and  in 
addition  they  should  be  as  well  educated  in  science,  and  in  its  application 
to  agricultural  improvement,  as  are  the  teachers  of  law  or  medicine  in  their 
fields.     Such  a  coordinate  institution  should  be  and  no  doubt  will  be  wel- 
comed, respected,  encouraged,  and  helped  by  the  other  colleges  of  the  Uni- 
versity already  great;    and  such  an  addition  should  increase  the  support 
and  the  general  appreciation  of  all  departments  of  the  University.    An  old 
oriental  philosophy  says:    "Public  prosperity  is  like  a  tree;    agriculture  is 
its  roots;   industry  and  commerce  are  its  branches  and  leaves.     If  the  root 
suffers,  the  leaves  fall,  the  branches  decay,  and  the  tree  dies."     Separate 
schools  for  agriculture  are  wholly  unnecessary  and  usually  unsatisfactory 
and  unsuccessful,  for  they  tend  to  share  the  disrespect  which  some  imper- 
fectly educated  people  feel  and  express  for  the  profession  of  farming,  and 
the  best  students  will  not  willingly  attend  separate  agricultural  schools  not 
generally  accorded  high  educational  rank. 

The  problems  of  providing  food  and  clothing  for  all  the  people  of 
Greece  is  not  less  important  than  healing  the  sick  or  settling  legal  diffi- 
culties; but  strong  students  will  not  enter  a  college  of  agriculture  unless 
its  position  is  as  respectable  and  reputable  educationally  as  that  of  other 
colleges.  Investigations  relating  to  the  scientific  improvement  of  agricul- 
tural practice  belong  logically  to  the  University,  while  regulatory  questions 
belong  very  properly  to  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture. 

2.  That  courses  in  agricultural  science  be  offered  by  the  high  schools 
of  Greece  to  be  taught  as  soon  as  possible  by  agricultural  graduates  of  the 
University,  and  that  all  high-school  students  be  permitted  and  encouraged 
to  take  some  courses  in  agricultural  science  or  the  application  of  science  to 
agriculture. 

3.  That  the  University  thru  its  agricultural  experiment  station,  begin 
soon  a  detailed  survey  of  the  soils  of  Greece,  making  maps  to  show  the  extent 
and  boundary  lines  of  the  various  soil  types  and  determining  the  general 
character  and  average  fertility  content  of  each  type ;  and  also  establish  and 
conduct  experiment  fields  in  different  parts  of  Greece  on  soils  representing 


466  BULLETIN  No.  239  [July, 

the  most  important  and  extensive  types  of  agricultural  land,  especially  for 
the  purpose  of  discovering  and  demonstrating  the  most  profitable  and  per- 
manent methods  of  increasing  crop  yields. 

In  these  experiments,  it  is  far  more  important  to  investigate  the  value 
of  phosphorus  both  in  acid  phosphate  and  in  like  cost  of  finely  ground 
natural  rock,  in  connection  with  legume  crops  turned  under  (directly  or 
after  pasturing)  and,  where  necessary,  in  connection  with  Greek  limestone, 
than  to  experiment  with  potassium  from  Germany  or  France  or  with 
nitrogen  from  Chile  or  from  chemical  factories.  It  is  also  far  better  to 
have  a  small  number  of  well-planned  and  carefully  conducted  plots  on  each 
of  many  experiment  fields,  well  distributed  over  Greece,  than  to  have  many 
plots  with  impracticable  experiments  in  only  a  few  places. 

The  following  scheme  may  serve  to  some  extent  in  planning  soil 
experiments : 

PLOT  SOIL  TREATMENT 

101 None 

102 Legumes 

103 Legumes,  acid  phosphate 

104 None 

105 Legumes,  limestone 

106 Legumes,  acid  phosphate,  limestone 

107 None 

108 Legumes,  acid  phosphate,  limestone,  sodium 

109 Legumes,  rock  phosphate,  limestone,  sodium 

110 None 

Where  the  plowed  soil  contains  more  than  one  percent  of  limestone 
(2  tons  per  stremma),  the  limestone  application  may  be  wholly  omitted, 
and  on  Plots  5  and  6  potassium  may  then  be  substituted. 

With  this  and  a  second  series  of  plots  to  be  numbered  from  201  to  210 
and  treated  similarly,  the  common  system  of  grain  and  fallow  could  be 
practiced,  legumes  being  grown  in  place  of  fallow  where  indicated.  With 
a  four-year  system,  such  as  wheat,  fallow,  barley,  and  fallow  (legumes 
where  indicated),  four  such  series  of  plots  would  permit  all  crops  to  appear 
every  year  and  in  rotation. 

When  needed  the  initial  application  of  limestone  may  be  one  ton  per 
stremma,  with  subsequent  applications  of  500  kilograms  every  four  years. 

The  applications  of  the  phosphate  may  well  be,  per  stremma,  100  kilo- 
grams of  acid  phosphate  or  (on  Plot  9)  200  kilograms  of  fine-ground, 
natural  rock  phosphate,  if  the  cost  justifies  it,  the  applications  to  be  repeated 
every  four  years. 

The  sodium  may  be  applied  in  50  kilograms  per  stremma  of  common 
salt  (sodium  chlorid)  and  the  potassium,  if  used,  in  equal  cost  of  potassium 
chlorid,  these  applications  to  be  repeated  every  four  years  and  worked  into 
the  soil  in  connection  with  the  phosphate. 

If  the  rotation  covers  more  or  less  than  four  years,  the  applications 
should  be  made  once  for  the  rotation  but  in  proportionate  quantities. 

Each  plot  may  well  be  ten  meters  wide  and  100  meters  long  if  sufficient 
uniform  land  is  available,  but  plots  as  small  as  two  meters  wide  and  five 


1922]  How  GREECE  CAN  PRODUCE  MORE  FOOD  467 

meters  long  may  give  valuable  results  if  the  land  is  well  selected  and  the 
experiments  conducted  with  care  and  accuracy.  In  all  plot  experiments 
under  normal  conditions  it  is  well  to  have  division  strips  two  meters  wide 
between  the  plots  and  wider  strips  between  the  series,  because  plant  roots 
will  extend  more  than  one  meter  beyond  the  plot  lines  and  applied  fertility 
will  be  moved  somewhat  in  tillage  operations. 

4.  That  the  Government  provide  or  assure  an  adequate  -supply  at 
reasonable  cost  to  farmers  of  acid  phosphate  and  finely  ground  natural 
phosphate  (at  least  90  percent  to  pass  thru  a  sieve  with  2,000  holes  per 
square  centimeter),  and  assist  in  the  introduction  of  suitable  legumes  and 
in  the  development  of  sources  of  pulverized  limestone  for  use  where  needed. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


